@article{rutherford_liu_wagemaker_2021, title={"I Chose Math Because ... ": Cognitive interviews of a motivation measure ...}, volume={66}, ISSN={["1090-2384"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101992}, abstractNote={The ability to accurately measure academic motivation is important to its value as a predictive variable for learning, achievement, and other outcomes. Although measures of motivation are frequently subject to quantitative validation (e.g., Appleton, Ntoumanis, Quested, Viladrich, & Duda, 2016; Gagné et al., 2015; Pekrun, Goetz, Frenzel, Barchfeld, & Perry, 2011), the establishment of cognitive validity is more rare. By conducting cognitive interviews with a sample of elementary-aged children, we explored the cognitive validity of a novel motivation (expectancy–value and academic emotions) survey embedded in an educational technology. Children were largely able to accurately interpret questions, elaborate on their reasoning for answers, and choose answers congruent with those reasons. Challenges to cognitive validity fell under varied and underdeveloped interpretations of expectancy–value concepts; misunderstandings related to available response choices; and discrepancies between younger and older children’s abilities to judge their perceived competencies and values. Insights from these interviews can be applied to interpretation of the immediate survey, but also to design and interpretation of motivation surveys beyond the current measure.}, journal={CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Liu, Allison S. and Wagemaker, Marina}, year={2021}, month={Jul} }
 @article{liu_schunn_2020, title={Predicting pathways to optional summer science experiences by socioeconomic status and the impact on science attitudes and skills}, volume={7}, ISSN={["2196-7822"]}, DOI={10.1186/s40594-020-00247-y}, abstractNote={Abstract
Background
Large achievement and motivation gaps exist in science between students from higher and lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds. Middle and high school are an important time to address these disparities, as science motivation typically declines for all students at this time, leading to particularly low science interest and achievement for lower SES students on average when the gaps are left unaddressed. Students’ control over their free time also increases at this time, providing opportunities for optional science experiences that may improve science attitudes and skills to combat these achievement and motivation gaps. Using a longitudinal dataset of 2252 middle and high school students from two regions in the USA, we investigate (1) disparities between higher and lower SES students in participation in optional summer science experiences and post-summer science attitudes and skills; (2) whether the child and family characteristics that predict participation in home-related, nature-related, and STEM camp experiences in the summer differ for higher and lower SES students; and (3) how participation in these types of optional summer science experiences contribute to post-summer science attitudes and skills when controlling for self-selection biases.

Results
Higher SES students reported greater participation in optional summer science experiences and higher post-summer science attitudes and sensemaking skills. Fascination for science was more important for participation in home-related and nature-related experiences for higher SES participants, whereas science competency beliefs were more important for lower SES participants. For STEM camp experiences, higher SES participants with higher competency beliefs and lower SES participants with lower scientific sensemaking skills were more likely to participate. After controlling for self-selection biases that may influence participation in these experiences, we found that home-related and nature-related experiences had a positive impact on students’ attitudes toward science.

Conclusions
Our findings suggest two pathways for increasing participation in optional summer science experiences for higher SES and lower SES students. Specifically, it may be helpful to support interest in science for higher SES students and competency beliefs for lower SES students. Greater participation in home-related and nature-related summer science experiences can also increase science attitudes during middle and high school.
}, number={1}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF STEM EDUCATION}, author={Liu, Allison S. and Schunn, Christian D.}, year={2020}, month={Sep} }
 @article{rutherford_liu_lam_schenke_2020, title={Impact on mathematics self-beliefs from a mastery-based mathematics software}, volume={52}, ISSN={["1945-0818"]}, DOI={10.1080/15391523.2019.1689210}, abstractNote={Abstract Self-beliefs are important determinants of student choice and success (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) and are informed by student educational experiences, such as prior success with a task (Bandura, 1986). The potential for Computer-Based Interventions as self-belief-supporting learning environments is examined in this study, focusing on the mathematics software, Spatial Temporal (ST) Math. ST Math includes elements theorized to support student self-beliefs, including informative feedback and a self-pacing structure. Using a randomized control trial, we find that students who play ST Math have higher mathematics self-beliefs than their control counterparts, and that ST Math operates through self-beliefs to positively influence achievement. ST Math’s impact on student self-beliefs is strongest for those students who had lower mathematics achievement scores.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Liu, Allison S. and Lam, Arena S. and Schenke, Katerina}, year={2020}, month={Jan}, pages={79–94} }