@article{rutherford_liu_wagemaker_2021, title={"I Chose Math Because ... ": Cognitive interviews of a motivation measure ...}, volume={66}, ISSN={["1090-2384"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101992}, abstractNote={The ability to accurately measure academic motivation is important to its value as a predictive variable for learning, achievement, and other outcomes. Although measures of motivation are frequently subject to quantitative validation (e.g., Appleton, Ntoumanis, Quested, Viladrich, & Duda, 2016; Gagné et al., 2015; Pekrun, Goetz, Frenzel, Barchfeld, & Perry, 2011), the establishment of cognitive validity is more rare. By conducting cognitive interviews with a sample of elementary-aged children, we explored the cognitive validity of a novel motivation (expectancy–value and academic emotions) survey embedded in an educational technology. Children were largely able to accurately interpret questions, elaborate on their reasoning for answers, and choose answers congruent with those reasons. Challenges to cognitive validity fell under varied and underdeveloped interpretations of expectancy–value concepts; misunderstandings related to available response choices; and discrepancies between younger and older children's abilities to judge their perceived competencies and values. Insights from these interviews can be applied to interpretation of the immediate survey, but also to design and interpretation of motivation surveys beyond the current measure.}, journal={CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Liu, Allison S. and Wagemaker, Marina}, year={2021}, month={Jul} }
 @article{karamarkovich_rutherford_2021, title={Mixed feelings: Profiles of emotions among elementary mathematics students and how they function within a control-value framework}, volume={66}, ISSN={["1090-2384"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101996}, abstractNote={Mixed feelings happen in and outside of the classroom; yet prior research has focused on discrete emotions, essentially ignoring the interaction between emotions. We extend prior person-centered studies of achievement emotions by placing emotions within the Control-Value Theory framework to examine how patterns of emotions mediate the relation between motivation and achievement. We found four profiles of emotion in both fourth (n = 5228) and fifth graders (n = 5299)—two positive profiles, a negative profile, and a mixed emotions profile where frustrated and challenged were the primary emotions. All profiles mediated the relationship between math expectancy and achievement. However, only three of the four emotion profiles mediated the relation between math value and achievement.}, journal={CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Karamarkovich, Sarah M. and Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2021}, month={Jul} }
 @article{rutherford_karamarkovich_xu_tate_sato_baker_warschauer_2021, title={Profiles of Instructor Responses to Emergency Distance Learning}, volume={25}, ISSN={["2472-5730"]}, DOI={10.24059/olj.v25i1.2472}, abstractNote={To understand instruction during the spring 2020 transition to emergency distance learning (EDL), we surveyed a sample of instructors teaching undergraduate EDL courses at a large university in the southwest. We asked them how frequently they used and how confident they were in their ability to implement each of nine promising practices, both for their spring 2020 EDL course and a time when they previously taught the same course face-to-face (F2F). Using latent class analysis, we examined how behavioral frequencies and confidence clustered to form meaningful groups of instructors, how these groups differed across F2F and EDL contexts, and what predicted membership in EDL groupings. Results suggest that in the EDL context, instructors fell into one of three profiles in terms of how often they used promising practices: Highly Supportive, Instructor Centered, and More Detached. When moving from the F2F to EDL context, instructors tended to shift “down” in terms of their profile—for example, among F2F Highly Supportive instructors, 34% shifted to the EDL Instructor Centered profile and 30% shifted to the EDL More Detached Profile. Instructors who reported lower self-efficacy for EDL practices were also more likely to end up in the EDL More Detached profile. These results can assist universities in understanding instructors' needs in EDL, and what resources, professional development, and institutional practices may best support instructor and student experiences.}, number={1}, journal={ONLINE LEARNING}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Karamarkovich, Sarah M. and Xu, Di and Tate, Tamara P. and Sato, Brian and Baker, Rachel B. and Warschauer, Mark}, year={2021}, month={Mar}, pages={86–114} }
 @article{shabrina_akintunde_maniktala_barnes_lynch_rutherford_2020, title={Peeking through the Classroom Window : A Detailed Data-Driven Analysis on the Usage of a Curriculum Integrated Math Game in Authentic Classrooms}, DOI={10.1145/3375462.3375525}, abstractNote={We present a data-driven analysis that provides generalized insights of how a curriculum integrated educational math game gets used as a routinized classroom activity throughout the year in authentic primary school classrooms. Our study relates observations from a field study on Spatial Temporal Math (ST Math) to our findings mined from ST Math students' sequential game play data. We identified features that vary across game play sessions and modeled their relationship with session performance. We also derived data-informed suggestions that may provide teachers with insights into how to design classroom game play sessions to facilitate more effective learning.}, journal={LAK20: THE TENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LEARNING ANALYTICS & KNOWLEDGE}, author={Shabrina, Preya and Akintunde, Ruth Okoilu and Maniktala, Mehak and Barnes, Tiffany and Lynch, Collin and Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2020}, pages={625–634} }
 @article{peddycord-liu_catete_vandenberg_barnes_lynch_rutherford_2019, title={A Field Study of Teachers Using a Curriculum-integrated Digital Game}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-85067602037&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1145/3290605.3300658}, abstractNote={We present a new framework describing how teachers use ST Math, a curriculum-integrated, year-long educational game, in 3rd-4th grade classrooms. We combined authentic classroom observations with teacher interviews to identify teacher needs and practices. Our findings extended and contrasted with prior work on teachers' behaviors around classroom games, identifying differences likely arising from a digital platform and year-long curricular integration. We suggest practical ways that curriculum-integrated games can be designed to help teachers support effective classroom culture and practice.}, journal={CHI 2019: PROCEEDINGS OF THE 2019 CHI CONFERENCE ON HUMAN FACTORS IN COMPUTING SYSTEMS}, publisher={ACM Press}, author={Peddycord-Liu, Zhongxiu and Catete, Veronica and Vandenberg, Jessica and Barnes, Tiffany and Lynch, Collin F. and Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2019} }
 @article{rutherford_liu_lam_schenke_2020, title={Impact on mathematics self-beliefs from a mastery-based mathematics software}, volume={52}, ISSN={["1945-0818"]}, DOI={10.1080/15391523.2019.1689210}, abstractNote={Abstract Self-beliefs are important determinants of student choice and success (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) and are informed by student educational experiences, such as prior success with a task (Bandura, 1986). The potential for Computer-Based Interventions as self-belief-supporting learning environments is examined in this study, focusing on the mathematics software, Spatial Temporal (ST) Math. ST Math includes elements theorized to support student self-beliefs, including informative feedback and a self-pacing structure. Using a randomized control trial, we find that students who play ST Math have higher mathematics self-beliefs than their control counterparts, and that ST Math operates through self-beliefs to positively influence achievement. ST Math’s impact on student self-beliefs is strongest for those students who had lower mathematics achievement scores.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Liu, Allison S. and Lam, Arena S. and Schenke, Katerina}, year={2020}, month={Jan}, pages={79–94} }
 @article{kunze_rutherford_2018, title={Blood from a stone: Where teachers report finding time for computer-based instruction}, volume={127}, DOI={10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.022}, abstractNote={In an era of accountability, implementation of computer-based instruction (CBI) may be attractive to personalize learning and raise test scores. Although prior work has examined how CBI may serve these purposes, we demonstrate that it also has an unintentional impact on how teachers allocate time in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential collateral damage of implementing CBI in elementary classrooms. Using the implementation of the supplemental CBI, Spatial Temporal (ST) Math as a case study, we analyze how 468 teachers report spending instructional minutes in each subject per week, and which subjects are reported as being limited to accommodate the program. Results reveal teachers vary in time spent across subjects and from where they draw time for ST Math. Most time for ST Math comes from a reduction of non-math core subject time with some variation according to grade. We provide initial evidence of teacher autonomy in subject time allocation within the context of CBI implementation; further study is needed to illuminate drivers of teacher's decisions.}, journal={COMPUTERS & EDUCATION}, author={Kunze, Andrea and Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2018}, pages={165–177} }
 @article{rutherford_karamarkovich_lee_2018, title={Is the spatial/math connection unique? Associations between mental rotation and elementary mathematics and English achievement}, volume={62}, ISSN={["1873-3425"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.lindif.2018.01.014}, abstractNote={Abstract It is commonly thought that strong spatial ability enhances mathematics performance and that associations between spatial ability and mathematics may be in part responsible for the gender gap in math performance. We investigated whether this spatial/math link is unique by examining the associations between mental rotation and both math and English/Language Arts (ELA) achievement using three similar samples of upper elementary students and three different measures of mental rotation. In each study, we found that the association between mathematics and mental rotation is no different than the association between ELA and mental rotation. We discuss how additions of prior achievement measures modify these associations and examine gender moderators, for which we find little support.}, journal={LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Karamarkovich, Sarah M. and Lee, David S.}, year={2018}, month={Feb}, pages={180–199} }
 @inbook{peddycord-liu_harred_karamarkovich_barnes_lynch_rutherford_2018, title={Learning Curve Analysis in a Large-Scale, Drill-and-Practice Serious Math Game: Where Is Learning Support Needed?}, ISBN={9783319938424 9783319938431}, ISSN={0302-9743 1611-3349}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93843-1_32}, DOI={10.1007/978-3-319-93843-1_32}, abstractNote={This paper applies data-driven methods to understand learning and derives game design insights in a large-scale, drill-and-practice game: Spatial Temporal (ST) Math. In order for serious games to thrive we must develop efficient, scalable methods to evaluate games against their educational goals. Learning models have matured in recent years and have been applied across e-learning platforms but they have not been used widely in serious games. We applied empirical learning curve analyses to ST Math under different assumptions of how knowledge components are defined in the game and map to game contents. We derived actionable game design feedback and educational insights regarding fraction learning. Our results revealed cases where students failed to transfer knowledge between math skills, content, and problem representations. This work stresses the importance of designing games that support students' comprehension of math concepts, rather than the learning of content- and situation-specific skills to pass games.}, booktitle={Lecture Notes in Computer Science}, publisher={Springer International Publishing}, author={Peddycord-Liu, Zhongxiu and Harred, Rachel and Karamarkovich, Sarah and Barnes, Tiffany and Lynch, Collin and Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2018}, pages={436–449} }
 @article{rutherford_buschkuehl_jaeggi_farkas_2018, title={Links between achievement, executive functions, and self-regulated learning}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1099-0720"]}, DOI={10.1002/acp.3462}, abstractNote={SummaryStudent self‐regulated learning (SRL) is theorized to draw upon cognitive resources such as executive functions (EF) in support of planning, monitoring, and control processes in the service of academic goals. Prior work has demonstrated connections between direct measures of EF and reports of regulation behaviors, but this has not been frequently extended using an SRL framework to classroom behaviors and resulting school achievement. We find relations between inhibition and shifting elements of EF and teacher reports of SRL and links between both and student achievement on standardized tests and classroom grades in mathematics and language arts. We also find that links between EF and math achievement are partially mediated through SRL. Our results suggest that aspects of EF can support or may be a bottleneck for SRL and thus academic achievement, and as such, they have implications for cognitive and educational interventions.}, number={6}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Buschkuehl, Martin and Jaeggi, Susanne M. and Farkas, George}, year={2018}, pages={763–774} }
 @article{callaghan_long_es_reich_rutherford_2018, title={How teachers integrate a math computer game: Professional development use, teaching practices, and student achievement}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1365-2729"]}, DOI={10.1111/jcal.12209}, abstractNote={AbstractAs more attention is placed on designing digital educational games to align with schools' academic aims (e.g., Common Core), questions arise regarding how professional development (PD) may support teachers' using games for instruction and how such integration might impact students' achievement. This study seeks to (a) understand how teachers use PD resources (e.g., technology personnel and game‐use workshops) for integration; (b) determine how teachers integrate games into their instruction; and (c) examine how those teaching practices are associated with student achievement. This mixed method study used survey and interview responses from elementary school teachers (n = 863) with access to PD resources for implementing a math game intervention and standardized math‐test scores from their second‐ through sixth‐grade students (n = 10,715). Findings showed few teachers sought PD assistance for integration, but many desired such support. Some reported using integrative practices (i.e., referencing game and using game‐generated progress reports) to identify struggling students, whereas several found integration challenging. Teachers' reordering of game objectives to align with lessons and viewing of game‐based PD videos were associated with increased student math achievement in our OLS‐analysis. However, this result was no longer statistically significant within a school fixed‐effects model, suggesting school differences may influence how strongly teachers' practices are associated with student achievement.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING}, author={Callaghan, M. N. and Long, J. J. and Es, E. A. and Reich, S. M. and Rutherford, T.}, year={2018}, month={Feb}, pages={10–19} }
 @article{rutherford_long_farkas_2017, title={Teacher value for professional development, self-efficacy, and student outcomes within a digital mathematics intervention}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1090-2384"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.05.005}, abstractNote={We examined teacher self-efficacy within the context of a suite of mathematics learning games, Spatial Temporal Mathematics (ST Math) to analyze the associations between teacher value for professional development and self-efficacy, and the associations of both with student achievement outcomes. We found that higher teacher valuing of ST Math professional development was associated with higher self-efficacy for teaching ST Math, and that teacher self-efficacy had a small positive association with student achievement, although the latter result was not replicated in a subdivision of the sample. These associations provide information on how teacher perceptions and self-beliefs about interventions and professional development may drive implementation and student outcomes.}, journal={CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Rutherford, Teomara and Long, Jennifer J. and Farkas, George}, year={2017}, month={Oct}, pages={22–36} }
 @article{rutherford_2017, title={Within and between person associations of calibration and achievement}, volume={49}, ISSN={["1090-2384"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.03.001}, abstractNote={Self-regulated learning (SRL), the ability to set goals and monitor and control progress toward these goals, is an important part of a positive mathematical disposition. Within SRL, accurate metacognitive monitoring is necessary to drive control processes. Students who display this accuracy are said to be calibrated, and although calibration is a growing area of research within Educational Psychology, unanswered questions remain about calibration's role as an aspect of metacognition, including the unique association between calibration and academic performance. In this study, calibration is characterized as part of a dynamic system that varies across tasks within the same person; variance in calibration is associated with variance in performance gain for the same student across tasks (quizzes within a year-long mathematics curriculum, ST Math). Both accurate determinations of certainty (Sensitivity) and uncertainty (Specificity) have unique small, yet statistically significant, associations with performance gains from pre to posttest in ST Math. For Specificity, there also remains a contextual association with performance at the Person level. Results are discussed in light of prior research on calibration and of theories of SRL; the data and analyses present a novel approach to studying calibration within a dynamic system and offer insights for future work.}, journal={CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2017}, month={Apr}, pages={226–237} }
 @article{rutherford_2017, title={The measurement of calibration in real contexts}, volume={47}, ISSN={["0959-4752"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.006}, abstractNote={Accurate judgment of performance, or calibration, is an important element of self-regulated learning (SRL) and itself has been an area of growing study. The current study contributes to work on calibration by presenting practical and predictive results of varying calibration measures from authentic educational data: elementary-aged students' interactions with a year-long digital mathematics curriculum. Comparison of predictive validity of measures show only small differences in explained variance in models predicting posttest performance while controlling for pretest. A combined model including Sensitivity and Specificity outperforms other single measures, confirming results in Schraw, Kuch, & Gutierrez (2013); however, results show that student patterns of calibration within these data differ from those assumed in simulation studies and these differences have implications for the calculability of popular calibration measures.}, journal={LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION}, author={Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2017}, month={Feb}, pages={33–42} }
 @article{simzar_martinez_rutherford_domina_conley_2015, title={Raising the stakes: How students' motivation for mathematics associates with high- and low-stakes test achievement}, volume={39}, ISSN={1041-6080}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.LINDIF.2015.03.002}, DOI={10.1016/J.LINDIF.2015.03.002}, abstractNote={This study uses data from an urban school district to examine the relation between students' motivational beliefs about mathematics and high- versus low-stakes math test performance. We use ordinary least squares and quantile regression analyses and find that the association between students' motivation and test performance differs based on the stakes of the exam. Students' math self-efficacy and performance avoidance goal orientation were the strongest predictors for both exams; however, students' math self-efficacy was more strongly related to achievement on the low-stakes exam. Students' motivational beliefs had a stronger association at the low-stakes exam proficiency cutoff than they did at the high-stakes passing cutoff. Lastly, the negative association between performance avoidance goals and high-stakes performance showed a decreasing trend across the achievement distribution, suggesting that performance avoidance goals are more detrimental for lower achieving students. These findings help parse out the ways motivation influences achievement under different stakes.}, journal={Learning and Individual Differences}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Simzar, Rahila M. and Martinez, Marcela and Rutherford, Teomara and Domina, Thurston and Conley, AnneMarie M.}, year={2015}, month={Apr}, pages={49–63} }
 @article{rutherford_2015, title={Emotional well-being and discrepancies between child and parent educational expectations and aspirations in middle and high school}, volume={20}, ISSN={0267-3843 2164-4527}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2013.767742}, DOI={10.1080/02673843.2013.767742}, abstractNote={Using data from a sample nationally representative of the United States (N = 1,115), this study investigates the association between emotional well-being and discrepant educational possible selves. Discrepancy is characterized as a mismatch between child educational expectations and parent educational aspirations for child or child educational aspirations for self. Age-related hypotheses are tested. Results suggest that middle school children who have expectations that don't match their parents' aspirations for them have lower well-being, and that among high school students, mismatch between a child's own aspirations and expectations is linked with lower well-being. Antecedents of discrepancies are explored: reading and math self-efficacy emerge as having small, but significant positive associations with well-being, partially mediated in middle school students by aspiration/expectation matches between parent and child.}, number={1}, journal={International Journal of Adolescence and Youth}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Rutherford, Teomara}, year={2015}, month={Jan}, pages={69–85} }
 @article{tran_schneider_duran_conley_richland_burchinal_rutherford_kibrick_osborne_coulson_et al._2012, title={The effects of mathematics instruction using spatial temporal cognition on teacher efficacy and instructional practices}, volume={28}, ISSN={0747-5632}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.003}, DOI={10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.003}, abstractNote={This paper examined the effects of an instructional approach known as Spatial Temporal Mathematics (ST Math) on teacher beliefs about mathematics teaching. Participants were 339 elementary teachers teaching grades 2–5 who were randomly assigned to a control or treatment group. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to determine the effects of the intervention on self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and instructional practices using scientific reasoning. While the treatment did not yield significant effects in teacher outcomes, our secondary analysis indicated that time on ST Math and the integration of ST Math into daily instructions were positively associated with teacher efficacy and instructional practices using scientific reasoning. Implications of the results on teacher beliefs about mathematics teaching are discussed.}, number={2}, journal={Computers in Human Behavior}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Tran, Natalie A. and Schneider, Stephanie and Duran, Lauren and Conley, AnneMarie and Richland, Lindsey and Burchinal, Margaret and Rutherford, Teomara and Kibrick, Melissa and Osborne, Keara and Coulson, Andrew and et al.}, year={2012}, month={Mar}, pages={340–349} }