@article{brewer_boxler_domingues_fryxell_holderman_loftin_machtinger_smythe_talley_watson_2021, title={Horn Fly (Diptera: Muscidae)-Biology, Management, and Future Research Directions}, volume={12}, ISSN={["2155-7470"]}, DOI={10.1093/jipm/pmab019}, abstractNote={Abstract The horn fly, Haematobia irritans irritans (L.), is one of the most important external parasites of cattle in North America and elsewhere. Horn fly adults have an intimate association with cattle, their primary host. With their often-high numbers and by feeding up to 38 times per day per fly, horn flies stress cattle. The resulting productivity loss is valued at more than 2.3 billion USD in the United States. Insecticides are commonly used to mitigate direct injury from feeding and indirect injury from disease transmission. This paper discusses horn fly biology, distribution, and management. Emphasis is on promising new approaches in novel insecticides, repellents, biological control, vaccines, animal genetics, and sterile insect technology that will lead to effective preventative tactics and the integration of smart technologies with horn fly management. We conclude with a discussion of research needs necessary to shift horn fly integrated pest management to an emphasis on preventative tactics and the precision use of reactive techniques.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT}, author={Brewer, Gary J. and Boxler, Dave J. and Domingues, Luisa N. and Fryxell, Rebecca T. Trout and Holderman, Chris and Loftin, Kelly M. and Machtinger, Erika and Smythe, Brandon and Talley, Justin L. and Watson, Wes}, year={2021}, month={Jan} }
 @article{brewer_boxler_domingues_fryxell_holderman_loftin_machtinger_smythe_talley_watson_2021, title={Horn Fly (Diptera: Muscidae)-Biology, Management, and Future Research Directions (June, 10.1093/jipm/pmab019, 2021)}, volume={12}, ISSN={["2155-7470"]}, DOI={10.1093/jipm/pmab042}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT}, author={Brewer, Gary J. and Boxler, Dave J. and Domingues, Luisa N. and Fryxell, Rebecca T. Trout and Holderman, Chris and Loftin, Kelly M. and Machtinger, Erika and Smythe, Brandon and Talley, Justin L. and Watson, Wes}, year={2021}, month={Jan} }
 @article{fowler_denning_hu_watson_schmidt_2020, title={Carbon Neutral: The Failure of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) to Affect Dung-Generated Greenhouse Gases in the Pasture}, volume={49}, ISSN={["1938-2936"]}, DOI={10.1093/ee/nvaa094}, abstractNote={Abstract Research suggests dung beetles can churn, aerate, and desiccate dung in ways that influence the dung and soil microbes producing greenhouse gases (GHGs). We examined the impacts of the tunneling beetle, Onthophagus taurus (Schreber), and the dwelling beetle, Labarrus pseudolividus (Balthasar), on the carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emitted from pasture-laid bovine dung as well as their sum-total (CO2 + CH4 + N2O) effect on global warming, or their carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). Despite dung beetles potential effects on CH4 and N2O, the existing literature shows no ultimate CO2e reductions. We hypothesized that more dung beetles would degrade pats faster and reduce CO2e, and so we increased the average dung beetle biomass per dung volume 6.22× above previously published records, and visually documented any dung damage. However, the time effects were 2–5× greater for any GHG and CO2e (E = 0.27–0.77) than dung beetle effects alone (E = 0.09–0.24). This suggests that dung beetle communities cannot adequately reduce GHGs unless they can accelerate dung decomposition faster than time alone.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Fowler, Fallon and Denning, Steve and Hu, Shuijin and Watson, Wes and Schmidt, Jason}, year={2020}, month={Oct}, pages={1105–1116} }
 @article{shymanovich_crowley_ingram_steen_panaccione_young_watson_poore_2020, title={Endophytes matter: Variation of dung beetle performance across different endophyte-infected tall fescue cultivars}, volume={152}, ISSN={["1873-0272"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apsoil.2020.103561}, abstractNote={Abstract Traditional tall fescue cultivar, Kentucky 31, possesses a wild-type endophyte strain that produces several bioactive compounds including the ergot alkaloid, ergovaline, known to cause cattle toxicity and effects on insects. Novel cultivars, BarOptima PLUS E34, Jesup MaxQ, and Texoma MaxQ II, possess different endophyte strains that do not have negative effects on cattle but still protect from insect grazing. Our study investigated if different cultivars have different effects on insect dung decomposers such as dung beetles and determined if ergovaline could be detected in cow dung. Ergovaline at 0.04 and 0.27 μg/g was detected only from Kentucky 31 dung samples from 2017 and 2018 collections, respectively. From the 2017 dung collection, we tested Onthophagus taurus oviposition substrate preferences for each cultivar versus dung from uninfected pasture and also larval survival and development for each dung-type. From the 2018 dung collection, O. taurus and Digitonthophagus gazella oviposition substrate preferences, larval survival and development were tested for Texoma MaxQ II versus Kentucky 31 dung-types. Among the four cultivars, for making brood-balls O. taurus preferred dung from Texoma MaxQ II while dung from Kentucky 31 and BarOptima PLUS E34 were avoided. Both beetle species preferred dung from Texoma MaxQ II versus Kentucky 31 pasture. Larval survival was not affected by dung-type with the 2017 samples. However, with the 2018 samples both beetle species had reduced larval survival on Kentucky 31 than on Texoma MaxQ II brood-balls. Development time for O. taurus was shorter for larvae from Texoma MaxQ II versus Kentucky 31 or uninfected dung brood-balls. Adult mass was not affected in the 2017 collection but was reduced in 2018 Kentucky 31 samples when compared with Texoma MaxQ II. Finally, dung beetles can differentiate dung from pastures with different tall fescue cultivars. Novel cultivar, Texoma MaxQ II, provides more benefits for dung beetles. Pasture renovations with Texoma MaxQ II may improve pasture ecology by enhancing dung beetle populations.}, journal={APPLIED SOIL ECOLOGY}, author={Shymanovich, Tatsiana and Crowley, Grace and Ingram, Sammuel and Steen, Chey and Panaccione, Daniel G. and Young, Carolyn A. and Watson, Wes and Poore, Matt}, year={2020}, month={Aug} }
 @article{hickner_mittapalli_subramoniam_sagel_watson_scott_arp_leon_syed_2020, title={Physiological and molecular correlates of the screwworm fly attraction to wound and animal odors}, volume={10}, ISBN={2045-2322}, DOI={10.1038/s41598-020-77541-w}, abstractNote={Abstract The screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel), was successfully eradicated from the United States by the sterile insect technique (SIT). However, recent detection of these flies in the Florida Keys, and increased risk of introductions to the other areas warrant novel tools for management of the flies. Surveillance, a key component of screwworm control programs, utilizes traps baited with rotting liver or a blend of synthetic chemicals such as swormlure-4 . In this work, we evaluated the olfactory physiology of the screwworm fly and compared it with the non-obligate ectoparasitic secondary screwworm flies, C. macellaria, that invade necrotic wound and feed on dead tissue. These two species occur in geographically overlapping regions. C. macellaria , along with other blowflies such as the exotic C. megacephala , greatly outnumber C. hominivorax in the existing monitoring traps. Olfactory responses to swormlure-4 constituents between sex and mating status (mated vs unmated) in both species were recorded and compared. Overall, responses measured by the antennograms offered insights into the comparative olfactory physiology of the two fly species. We also present detailed analyses of the antennal transcriptome by RNA-Sequencing that reveal significant differences between male and female screwworm flies. The differential expression patterns were confirmed by quantitative PCR. Taken together, this integrated study provides insights into the physiological and molecular correlates of the screwworm’s attraction to wounds, and identifies molecular targets that will aid in the development of odorant-based fly management strategies.}, number={1}, journal={SCIENTIFIC REPORTS}, author={Hickner, Paul V. and Mittapalli, Omprakash and Subramoniam, Anjana and Sagel, Agustin and Watson, Wes and Scott, Maxwell J. and Arp, Alex P. and Leon, Adalberto A. Perez and Syed, Zainulabeuddin}, year={2020} }
 @article{fowler_wilcox_orr_watson_2020, title={Sampling Efficacy and Survival Rates of Labarrus pseudolividus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Using Flotation and Sieve-Separation Methodology}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1536-2442"]}, DOI={10.1093/jisesa/ieaa083}, abstractNote={Abstract Understanding collection methodologies and their limitations are essential when targeting specific arthropods for use in habitat restoration, conservation, laboratory colony formation, or when holistically representing local populations using ecological surveys. For dung beetles, the most popular collection methodology is baited traps, followed by light traps and unbaited flight-intercept traps during diversity surveys. A less common collection method, flotation, is assumed to be laborious and messy, and so only a handful of papers exist on its refinement and strengths. Our purpose was threefold: First, we tested the recovery and survival rates of Labarrus (=Aphodius) pseudolividus (Balthasar) and Onthophagus taurus (Schreber) when floating beetle-seeded dung pats to determine potential collection and safety issues. We collected 72.4 and 78% of the seeded L. pseudolividus and O. taurus, respectively, with >95% survival rating. Second, we developed a flotation-sieving technique that enables users to rapidly collect and passively sort dung beetles with less time and effort. Specifically, we often collected 50–100 g of wild dung beetles within a couple of hours of gathering dung and sorted them in a couple more by allowing dung beetles to sort themselves by size within a series of sieves; Third, we reviewed flotation-based advantages and disadvantages in comparison to other methodologies.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE}, author={Fowler, Fallon and Wilcox, Tashiana and Orr, Stephanie and Watson, Wes}, year={2020}, month={Nov} }
 @article{smythe_boxler_brewer_psota_watson_2020, title={Using Visual and Digital Imagery to Quantify Horn Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Densities}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1536-2442"]}, DOI={10.1093/jisesa/ieaa110}, abstractNote={Abstract The horn fly, Haematobia irritans L. (Diptera: Muscidae), is a persistent pest of cattle globally. A threshold of 200 flies per animal is considered the standard management goal; however, determining when that threshold has been exceeded is difficult using visual estimates that tend to overestimate the actual fly densities and are, at best, subjective. As a result, a more reliable and durable method of determining horn fly densities is needed. Here, we describe the methods commonly used to quantify horn fly densities including visual estimates and digital photography, and provide examples of quantification software and the prospect for computer automation methods.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE}, author={Smythe, Brandon and Boxler, David and Brewer, Gary and Psota, Eric and Watson, D. Wes}, year={2020}, month={Nov} }
 @article{cruise_hatano_watson_schal_2018, title={Comparison of Techniques for Sampling Adult Necrophilous Insects From Pig Carcasses}, volume={55}, ISSN={0022-2585 1938-2928}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjx255}, DOI={10.1093/jme/tjx255}, abstractNote={Studies of the pre-colonization interval and mechanisms driving necrophilous insect ecological succession depend on effective sampling of adult insects and knowledge of their diel and successional activity patterns. The number of insects trapped, their diversity, and diel periodicity were compared with four sampling methods on neonate pigs. Sampling method, time of day and decomposition age of the pigs significantly affected the number of insects sampled from pigs. We also found significant interactions of sampling method and decomposition day, time of sampling and decomposition day. No single method was superior to the other methods during all three decomposition days. Sampling times after noon yielded the largest samples during the first 2 d of decomposition. On day 3 of decomposition however, all sampling times were equally effective. Therefore, to maximize insect collections from neonate pigs, the method used to sample must vary by decomposition day. The suction trap collected the most species-rich samples, but sticky trap samples were the most diverse, when both species richness and evenness were factored into a Shannon diversity index. Repeated sampling during the noon to 18:00 hours period was most effective to obtain the maximum diversity of trapped insects. The integration of multiple sampling techniques would most effectively sample the necrophilous insect community. However, because all four tested methods were deficient at sampling beetle species, future work should focus on optimizing the most promising methods, alone or in combinations, and incorporate hand-collections of beetles.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Medical Entomology}, publisher={Oxford University Press (OUP)}, author={Cruise, Angela and Hatano, Eduardo and Watson, David W and Schal, Coby}, year={2018}, month={Feb}, pages={947–954} }
 @article{fisher_watson_osborne_mochizuki_breen_schal_2018, title={Growth kinetics of endosymbiont Wolbachia in the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius}, volume={8}, ISSN={2045-2322}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/S41598-018-29682-2}, DOI={10.1038/S41598-018-29682-2}, abstractNote={Abstract The common bed bug, Cimex lectularius harbors the endosymbiotic microorganism, Wolbachia ( w Cle), in a gonad-associated bacteriome as an obligate nutritional mutualist. The obligatory nature of this association suggests that all individuals in C. lectularius populations would be infected with w Cle. However, studies spanning the past several decades have reported variation in both infection frequency and relative abundance of w Cle in field-collected samples of bed bugs. Since the growth kinetics of w Cle is poorly understood, the objective of this study was to quantify w Cle over the life cycle of two strains of C. lectularius . Our results highlight that w Cle is dynamic during bed bug development, changing relative to life stage, intermolt stage, and blood-fed status. These results suggest new hypotheses about the coordination of Wolbachia growth and regression with its host’s physiology and endocrine events. The observed quantitative modulation of w Cle during the bed bug life cycle and during periods of starvation may explain the disparities in w Cle infections reported in field-collected C. lectularius .}, number={1}, journal={Scientific Reports}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, author={Fisher, Michael L. and Watson, David W. and Osborne, Jason A. and Mochizuki, Hiroyuki and Breen, Matthew and Schal, Coby}, year={2018}, month={Jul} }
 @article{floate_watson_weiss_olfert_2017, title={Bioclimatic analyses for the distributions of Onthophagus nuchicornis, Onthophagus taurus, and Digitonthophagus gazella (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in North America}, volume={149}, ISSN={["1918-3240"]}, DOI={10.4039/tce.2017.20}, abstractNote={Abstract Onthophagus nuchicornis (Linnaeus), Onthophagus taurus (Schreber), and Digitonthophagus gazella (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae: Onthophagini) are species of dung beetles that have been used in relocation programmes to accelerate the degradation of cattle dung on pastures. Exotic in North America, all three species have expanded their distributions since their introduction onto the continent. Here we report development of CLIMEX ® bioclimatic models using data collected before 2011 that predict the eventual North American distributions of these species. Data collected after 2010 is used to validate these models. Model outputs identify large regions of the central United States of America suitable for establishment of O. nuchicornis and O. taurus where these species have not been reported. These results indicate that the latter two species may already be present in these regions and undetected, that they have yet to expand into these regions, and (or) that factors restricting migration or dispersal prevent these species from occupying these areas. Model outputs for D. gazella suggest that the species has largely reached its predicted maximum distribution. These models can be used to aid the success of future relocation programmes elsewhere in the world and (or) to predict regions where these species are likely to spread without human intervention.}, number={4}, journal={CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGIST}, author={Floate, K. D. and Watson, D. W. and Weiss, R. M. and Olfert, O.}, year={2017}, month={Aug}, pages={504–524} }
 @article{mullens_watson_gerry_sandelin_soto_rawls_denning_guisewite_cammack_2017, title={Field trials of fatty acids and geraniol applied to cattle for suppression of horn flies, Haematobia irritans (Diptera: Muscidae), with observations on fly defensive behaviors}, volume={245}, ISSN={["1873-2550"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.08.005}, abstractNote={Adult horn fly populations were tracked on cattle for 2-week periods before, during and after multiple treatments (every 3-4days) with two repellents in a mineral oil carrier. Cattle were sprayed four times in a two-week period either with 2% geraniol (125ml/cow) or a 15% mixture of short chain fatty acids (C8-C9-C10)(250ml/cow), and there were untreated control cattle. Trials were conducted in California and North Carolina for 3 summers. Short-term fly counts (same day) on treated cattle were reduced by 61-99%, depending on material and trial, and the fatty acid mixture provided better control than geraniol. Horn fly counts were suppressed for 1-3 d and rebounded somewhat after both treatments. Consecutive treatments showed evidence of persistent impact in California where herds were more isolated. Rebounds to pre-treatment levels 3-4 d after treatment occurred more often in North Carolina, where other infested cattle were closer to treated herds. By 3-4 d post-treatment, horn flies were reduced by 29-61% in California and 0-83% in North Carolina, relative to pre-treatment. Background behavior frequencies were assessed from hundreds of counts on untreated, infested California cattle, where horn flies were the only abundant biting fly. Behavior averages were 16.5 tail flicks, 7.6 skin twitches, 1.2 head throws, or 0.2 leg stamps per 2min observation period. At horn fly densities from about 200 to more than 1000 flies per animal (moderate to high numbers), fly defensive behaviors on control cattle were poorly related (or unrelated) to fly numbers. Immediately after repellent application, however, flies were almost absent and behavior frequencies dropped distinctly. Cattle fly defensive behaviors therefore seem to be quite sensitive to low (less than 100 flies/animal) horn fly densities, and behaviors would be a poor quantitative tool to track fly stress at moderate densities and above. Both geraniol and the fatty acids show promise for horn fly control, especially in organic agriculture. Treatments at 1-2 d intervals probably would keep infestations below the economic threshold (200 flies/cow).}, journal={VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY}, author={Mullens, Bradley A. and Watson, D. Wes and Gerry, Alec C. and Sandelin, Broc A. and Soto, Diane and Rawls, Diana and Denning, Steve and Guisewite, Lena and Cammack, Jonathan}, year={2017}, month={Oct}, pages={14–28} }
 @article{cammack_reiskind_guisewite_denning_watson_2017, title={Quantifying pteridines in the heads of blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae): Application for forensic entomology}, volume={280}, ISSN={["1872-6283"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.09.006}, abstractNote={In forensic cases involving entomological evidence, establishing the postcolonization interval (post-CI) is a critical component of the investigation. Traditional methods of estimating the post-CI rely on estimating the age of immature blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) collected from remains. However, in cases of delayed discovery (e.g., when remains are located indoors), these insects may have completed their development and be present in the environment as adults. Adult fly collections are often ignored in cases of advanced decomposition because of a presumed little relevance to the investigation; herein we present information on how these insects can be of value. In this study we applied an age-grading technique to estimate the age of adults of Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius), Cochliomyia macellaria (Fabricius), and Phormia regina (Meigen), based on the temperature-dependent accumulation of pteridines in the compound eyes, when reared at temperatures ranging from 5 to 35°C. Age could be estimated for all species*sex*rearing temperature combinations (mean r2±SE: 0.90±0.01) for all but P. regina reared at 5.4°C. These models can be used to increase the precision of post-CI estimates for remains found indoors, and the high r2 values of 22 of the 24 regression equations indicates that this is a valid method for estimating the age of adult blow flies at temperatures ≥15°C.}, journal={FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL}, author={Cammack, J. A. and Reiskind, M. H. and Guisewite, L. M. and Denning, S. S. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2017}, month={Nov}, pages={44–48} }
 @article{fisher_fowler_denning_watson_2017, title={Survival of the House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) on Truvia and Other Sweeteners}, volume={54}, ISSN={["1938-2928"]}, DOI={10.1093/jme/tjw241}, abstractNote={The house fly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), is a disease vector of mechanically transmitted pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and protozoans. Opportunities for pathogen transmission can increase as fly longevity increases. Dietary preferences play an important role in insect longevity; therefore, we investigated house fly preferences, sucrose availability, and caloric constraints on house fly longevity. Experimental goals were: 1) to test the effects of calorie restriction on survival of house flies by manipulating concentrations of erythritol (low caloric content) and sucrose (high caloric content), and comparing commercial sweeteners of differing calorie content, 2) to identify house fly preferences for either erythritol or sucrose, and 3) to evaluate the insecticidal activity or toxicity of erythritol on house flies. Our data show that house flies may prefer high calorie options when given a choice and that house fly longevity likely increases as calorie content increases. Additionally, no significant differences in longevity were observed between the water only control (zero calories) and erythritol treatments. This suggests that decreased survival rates and death could be the result of starvation rather than insecticidal activity. This research furthers our understanding of house fly survival and sugar-feeding behavior.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Fisher, Michael L. and Fowler, Fallon E. and Denning, Steven S. and Watson, David W.}, year={2017}, month={Jul}, pages={999–1005} }
 @article{cammack_cohen_kreitlow_roe_watson_2016, title={Decomposition of Concealed and Exposed Porcine Remains in the North Carolina Piedmont}, volume={53}, ISSN={["1938-2928"]}, DOI={10.1093/jme/tjv183}, abstractNote={We examined the decomposition and subsequent insect colonization of small pig carrion (Sus scrofa (L.)) placed in concealed and open environments during spring, summer, and fall in Raleigh, North Carolina, as a model for juvenile human remains. Remains were concealed in simulated attics in three manners, ranging from minimal to well-concealed. Concealment had a significant effect on the insect community colonizing the remains across all three seasons; the beetles Necrobia rufipes (DeGeer) (Cleridae) and Dermestes maculatus (DeGeer) (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) were the only species indicative of remains located indoors, whereas numerous fly (Diptera: Calliphoridae, Muscidae, Sepsidae, and Piophilidae) and beetle (Coleoptera: Silphidae, Staphylinidae, and Histeridae) species and an ant species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae, Prenolepis sp.) were indicative of remains located outdoors. Season also significantly affected the insect species, particularly the blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) colonizing remains: Lucilia illustris (Meigen) was indicative of the spring, Cochliomyia macellaria (F.) and Chrysomya megacephala (F.) were indicative of the summer, and Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy and Calliphora vomitoria (L.) were indicative of the fall. In addition, across all seasons, colonization was delayed by 35–768 h, depending on the degree of concealment. These differences among the insect communities across seasons and concealment treatments, and the effects of concealment on colonization indicate that such information is important and should to be considered when analyzing entomological evidence for criminal investigations.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Cammack, J. A. and Cohen, A. C. and Kreitlow, K. L. and Roe, R. M. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2016}, month={Jan}, pages={67–75} }
 @article{floate_watson_coghlin_olfert_2015, title={Degree-day models for development of the dung beetles Onthophagus nuchicornis, O. taurus, and Digitonthophagus gazella (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), and the likelihood of O. taurus establishment in southern Alberta, Canada}, volume={147}, ISSN={["1918-3240"]}, DOI={10.4039/tce.2014.70}, abstractNote={Abstract Three studies were performed to assess the likelihood of establishing the dung beetle Onthophagus taurus (Schreber) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in southern Alberta, Canada. This European species was first reported in Florida in the 1970s and now occurs as far north as Michigan, United States of America. Its ability to establish in Canada is unknown, but is desired to accelerate the degradation of cattle dung on pastures. The first study examined egg-to-adult development at temperatures of 10–32 °C (in increments of 2 °C) to develop degree-day models for O. taurus and for two other closely related species of dung beetles. Onthophagus nuchicornis (Linnaeus), used as a positive control, is a European species common across Canada. Digitonthophagus gazella (Fabricius), used as a negative control, is an Afro-Asian species whose distribution is restricted in North America to the southern United States of America. The second study examined the overwintering ability of O. taurus and D. gazella in outdoor field cages. The third study compared climate parameters between southern Alberta and the northernmost recorded distribution of O. taurus . Results combined across the three studies show that O. taurus can complete egg-to-adult development and overwinter in southern Alberta. However, high overwintering mortality is predicted to prevent establishment of O. taurus in the region.}, number={5}, journal={CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGIST}, author={Floate, K. D. and Watson, D. W. and Coghlin, P. and Olfert, O.}, year={2015}, month={Oct}, pages={617–627} }
 @article{denning_washburn_watson_2014, title={Development of a novel walk-through fly trap for the control of horn flies and other pests on pastured dairy cows}, volume={97}, ISSN={["1525-3198"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.2013-7872}, abstractNote={A prototype walk-through fly vacuum system, designed to remove horn flies Haematobia irritans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) from cattle, was developed and tested for efficacy. The study was conducted during 4 fly seasons over 17 consecutive weeks each year within the months of May through September at 1 dairy research herd in the coastal plain of North Carolina. Additional data on horn flies, as well as face flies (Musca autumnalis) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans), were collected during 1 yr from 7 commercial pasture-based and organic dairy farms in the piedmont region of North Carolina. The number of flies observed on animals in the pasture was compared with the number of flies collected in the trap. Studies were initiated after horn fly densities had met or exceeded a threshold of 200 flies per animal. The vacuum trap removed between 1.3 and 2.5 million flies annually from the research station cattle. Most fly removal occurred during the first few weeks of operation and maintained densities below threshold thereafter. Cattle using the fly trap at the research farm had only about 28% the number of horn flies as untreated cattle, and reductions ranged from 67.5 to 74.5% across the 4-yr study. In addition to large numbers of horn flies, traps placed on commercial dairies during 1 yr collected stable flies, face flies, and house flies, all species with differing behavior and larger in size than horn flies. The estimated cost of running the trap is $72 per season at commercial rates of $0.12 per hour and an expected 4 h of daily operation during the time of milking. Use of a vacuum system as described herein has potential as a cost-effective method in reducing populations of parasitic flies in pasture-based dairy production systems without the use of insecticides.}, number={7}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Denning, S. S. and Washburn, S. P. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2014}, month={Jul}, pages={4624–4631} }
 @article{arnaudin_teutsch_watson_wildeus_abaye_2014, title={Dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) abundance and diversity in alpaca pastures of Virginia USA}, volume={49}, DOI={10.18474/0749-8004-49.2.97}, abstractNote={Dung-baited pitfall traps were used to conduct a survey of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in alpaca pastures located at Virginia State University, Petersburg, VA, from May to September in 2010 and 2011. Beetles were collected weekly and identified to species. Of the 3,136 beetles collected, 11 species were represented: Onthophagus taurus Schreber, O. pennsylvanicus Harold, O. hecate hecate Panzer, Copris minutus Drury, Phanaeus vindex MacLeay, Dichotomius carolinus L., Sphaeridium scarabaeoides L., Aphodius erraticus L., A. fimetarius L., A. (Nialaphodius) nigrita F., and A. (Labarrus) lividus Olivier. The most common species found in both years was O. taurus, which accounted for 43% and 59% of the populations in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Paracoprid tunneler beetles dominated the collection in both years. Both native and exotic species were abundant, indicating that the introduction of exotic dung beetle species has not been detrimental to native populations. The species abundance and diversity fluctuated throughout the summer, likely related to weather patterns.}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Entomological Science}, author={Arnaudin, M. E. and Teutsch, C. D. and Watson, D. W. and Wildeus, S. A. J. and Abaye, A. O.}, year={2014}, pages={97–109} }
 @article{balme_denning_cammack_watson_2012, title={Blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) survive burial: Evidence of ascending vertical dispersal}, volume={216}, ISSN={["1872-6283"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.07.017}, abstractNote={This study was undertaken to determine if immature blow flies could complete development following burial and emerge from the soil as adults. Two species of blow flies, Cochliomyia macellaria and Protophormia terraenovae, were placed at three depths and at three different life stages, in a simulated burial to evaluate the impact of soil on ascending vertical dispersal and fly survival. In soil columns, immature stages of each species were covered with 5, 25 and 50cm of soil. Emerging adult flies of both species reached the surface from all depths at all three immature stages (2nd instar, 3rd instar and pupae). At the 50-cm depth, flies were least successful in reaching the surface when buried as pupae and most successful as late 3rd instar larvae (prepupae). Collectively, more adult flies emerged from the soil if buried as 3rd instars (79.6%) than either 2nd instars or pupae (59.6% and 59.3%, respectively (F(2,159)=14.76, P<0.0001)). Similarly, at shallow burial depths of 5 and 25cm, 75.6% and 70.4% of the adults successfully reached the surface, compared with 52.6% at the 50-cm depth (F(2,159)=15.95, P<0.0001). Second instars demonstrated ascending vertical dispersal behaviours in the soil column by pupating closer to the surface. Nearly half (46.6%) of the C. macellaria 2nd instars buried in 25cm of soil pupated nearer to the surface. Similarly, 45.4% of the P. terraenovae 2nd instars pupated nearer to the surface. When buried at 50cm, approximately 25% of 2nd instars of both species pupated nearer to the surface. When 3rd instars of C. macellaria and P. terraenovae were buried at 120cm, 40% and 4.3% of the adults, respectively, successfully reached the soil surface.}, number={1-3}, journal={FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL}, author={Balme, G. R. and Denning, S. S. and Cammack, J. A. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2012}, month={Mar}, pages={E1–E4} }
 @article{anderson_lyman_moury_ray_watson_correa_2012, title={Molecular epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis in dairy heifers}, volume={95}, ISSN={["1525-3198"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.2011-4913}, abstractNote={The specific purpose was to investigate the possible interrelationships of genotypes of Staphylococcus aureus found in mammary glands, horn flies, and extramammary sites on 3 southeastern US dairies. A total of 1,228 samples were obtained from various sources on the 3 dairy herds, each of which had a history of Staph. aureus mastitis. Dairy herds studied had access to pasture, and samples were collected during the summer when horn flies (Haematobia irritans) were active. Samples collected included milk samples from all lactating herd cows, colostrum samples from heifers calving during the study period, heifer body sites (mouth, nostrils, and teats), the heifer environment (water, feed, and soil/vegetation/pasture), horn flies, and humans (hands and nostrils). Isolation of Staph. aureus was attempted from all samples, with isolates subjected to genotypic analysis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. A total of 244/1228 (or 19.9%) of all samples were positive for Staph. aureus. For milk samples, 52/383 (or 13.6%) of samples were Staph. aureus positive, and 70/411 (or 17.0%) of heifer quarter colostrum samples were positive. Horn fly samples were frequently positive, with over one-half (29/52, or 55.8%) of samples positive for Staph. aureus. Staphylococcus aureus obtained during the study comprised isolates from 12 different genotype groups as defined in this study. Identical genotypes were obtained from horn flies, heifer colostrum samples, and cow milk samples. Group B genotypes were shared among flies, heifer colostrum samples, body sites, and cow milk samples, whereas group A genotypes were common to the same sample locations and body sites but rarely (once) found in horn flies. We conclude, based upon the finding of identical pulsed-field gel electrophoresis genotypes in flies, heifer body sites, and heifer colostrum samples, that flies and heifer body sites could be important sources of Staph. aureus for heifer intramammary infections.}, number={9}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Anderson, K. L. and Lyman, R. and Moury, K. and Ray, D. and Watson, D. W. and Correa, M. T.}, year={2012}, month={Sep}, pages={4921–4930} }
 @article{rochon_baker_almond_watson_2011, title={Assessment of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) as a Vector of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus}, volume={48}, ISSN={["0022-2585"]}, DOI={10.1603/me10014}, abstractNote={Porcine Reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is a globally significant swine disease caused by an arterivirus. The virus replicates in alveolar macrophages of infected pigs, resulting in pneumonia in growing pigs and late-term abortions in sows. Outbreaks occur on disparate farms within an area despite biosecurity measures, suggesting mechanical transport by arthropods. We investigated the vector potential of stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), in the transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (family Arteriviridae, genus Arterivirus, PRRSV) under laboratory conditions. Stable flies were collected around PRRS-negative boar stud barns in North Carolina and tested for presence of the virus. Stable flies were collected on alsynite traps placed near the exhaust fan of the close-sided tunnel-ventilated buildings, suggesting blood seeking flies are attracted by olfactory cues. No flies were positive for PRRSV. We assessed transmission of the virus through an infective bite by feeding laboratory reared stable flies on blood containing virus and transferring them to naive pigs for subsequent bloodmeals. Transmission of the virus to naive pigs by infective bites failed in all attempts. The volume of blood contained within the closed mouthparts of the stable fly seems to be insufficient to deliver an infective dose of the virus. Stable flies are unlikely to transmit PRRSV from one pig to another while blood feeding. The fate of the virus after a bloodmeal remains to be determined.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Rochon, K. and Baker, R. B. and Almond, G. W. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2011}, month={Jul}, pages={876–883} }
 @article{bissinger_apperson_watson_arellano_sonenshine_roe_2011, title={Novel field assays and the comparative repellency of BioUD (R), DEET and permethrin against Amblyomma americanum}, volume={25}, ISSN={["1365-2915"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2915.2010.00923.x}, abstractNote={Two new field bioassay methods were developed to compare the repellent activity of BioUD® (containing 7.75% 2-undecanone), 98.1% DEET and 0.5% permethrin against natural populations of nymphal Amblyomma americanum (L.) (Acari: Ixodidae). In a cloth sheet assay, pieces of material measuring 41 × 58 cm, separately treated with one of the test materials or the appropriate solvent carrier, were placed at random on the ground and baited with dry ice for 1 h. Mean numbers of ticks on repellent-treated sheets were significantly lower than on control sheets. There was no significant difference in the number of ticks collected between sheets treated with BioUD® and those treated with DEET. However, significantly fewer ticks were found on sheets treated with BioUD® or DEET than on permethrin-treated sheets. In a sock test, over-the-calf tube socks were treated with one of the test materials or the appropriate solvent carrier. Human volunteers wore a repellent-treated and a corresponding carrier-treated sock on either leg and walked randomly over an area of approximately 4000 m2 for 15 min. Significantly fewer ticks were collected from socks treated with BioUD® or DEET than from socks treated with the carrier and there was no significant difference in repellency between these two agents. No difference in the mean number of ticks collected was found between permethrin-treated and corresponding carrier-treated socks. To examine the mechanism of repellency of BioUD®, a four-choice olfactometer was used to assess spatial repellency against adult A. americanum. As expected in the absence of a repellent, when all choices were represented by water-treated filter paper, ticks were equally distributed among the choices. When one choice consisted of BioUD®-treated filter paper and the remaining choices of water-treated paper, the distribution of ticks on the repellent-treated paper was significantly lower than might be expected to occur by chance, suggesting that repellency is at least partly achieved by an olfactory mechanism.}, number={2}, journal={MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Bissinger, B. W. and Apperson, C. S. and Watson, D. W. and Arellano, C. and Sonenshine, D. E. and Roe, R. M.}, year={2011}, month={Jun}, pages={217–226} }
 @article{bissinger_apperson_sonenshine_watson_roe_2009, title={Efficacy of the new repellent BioUD(A (R)) against three species of ixodid ticks}, volume={48}, ISSN={["1572-9702"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10493-008-9235-x}, abstractNote={BioUD® with the active ingredient 2-undecanone originally derived from wild tomato plants is a new repellent recently registered by the US EPA. Repellent efficacy of BioUD® (7.75% 2-undecanone) and DEET (98.11%) was examined in the laboratory using a choice test between repellent-treated and control filter paper surfaces for Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, and Ixodes scapularis. BioUD® provided greater repellency against A. americanum and I. scapularis than DEET. No difference was found between BioUD® and DEET against D. variabilis. In head-to-head assays between BioUD® and DEET, undiluted and 50% dilutions of BioUD® were more repellent than undiluted DEET against all three species tested. Similarly, a 25% dilution of BioUD® was more repellent than DEET against A. americanum while no difference in mean percentage repellency was found between a 25% dilution of BioUD® and DEET against I. scapularis. Based on regression analysis, the concentration of BioUD® required for equivalent repellency to 98.11% DEET was 39.5% for D. variabilis and 29.7% for I. scapularis. A log-probit model could not be constructed for A. americanum from the dosages tested. Based on filter paper head-to-head assays, BioUD® is at least 2–4 times more active as a repellent than DEET against three species of ixodid ticks under the conditions of our laboratory bioassays.}, number={3}, journal={EXPERIMENTAL AND APPLIED ACAROLOGY}, author={Bissinger, B. W. and Apperson, C. S. and Sonenshine, D. E. and Watson, D. W. and Roe, R. M.}, year={2009}, month={Jul}, pages={239–250} }
 @article{watson_boohene_denning_stringham_2008, title={Tank Mixes: Consequences of Using Insecticide and Disinfectant Mixtures to Reduce Flies and Bacteria}, volume={17}, ISSN={["1056-6171"]}, DOI={10.3382/japr.2007-00044}, abstractNote={SUMMARY The use of disinfectants and insecticides to control pathogens and the insects that may harbor avian pathogens has become routine for on-farm biosecurity programs. It is commonplace for producers to wash, disinfect, and apply insecticides to poultry houses between flock cycles. Occasionally, the urgency to repopulate the houses limits the time producers have to adequately perform preflock sanitization of the premise. The use of tank mixes (i.e., combining insecticides and disinfectants in a single application) saves time and labor. This study examined the consequences of using insecticide and disinfectant used separately or as a mixture for the control of the bacterium Salmonella Typhimurium and the house fly (Musca domestica). Aldehyde + formalin- and aldehyde + glutaraldehyde/quaternary ammonium (DC&R and Synergize)-based disinfectants were effective against Salmonella Typhimurium at the label rate. Disinfectant classes quaternary ammonium (Tryad), iodine (Dyne-O-Might), and peroxymonosulfate (Virkon S) were ineffective at label rates or in mixtures with insecticides. House fly mortality was 100% for tetrachlorvinphos/vapona (Ravap), Spinosad (Elector), and cyfluthrin (Tempo) and above 92% for permethrin (Martin's Permethrin) and tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) insecticides. Permethrin efficacy was compromised by the addition of disinfectants in all cases except the glutaraldehyde/quaternary ammonium blend. Elector efficacy was reduced when blended with iodine or peroxymonosulfate disinfectant classes. Tempo insecticidal activity was compromised when mixed with Tryad and Virkon S. Ravap and Rabon efficacy against house flies was unchanged in mixture.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF APPLIED POULTRY RESEARCH}, author={Watson, D. W. and Boohene, C. K. and Denning, S. S. and Stringham, S. M.}, year={2008}, pages={93–100} }
 @article{apperson_engber_nicholson_mead_engel_yabsley_dail_johnson_watson_2008, title={Tick-Borne Diseases in North Carolina: Is "Rickettsia amblyommii" a Possible Cause of Rickettsiosis Reported as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever?}, volume={8}, ISSN={["1557-7759"]}, DOI={10.1089/vbz.2007.0271}, abstractNote={Cases of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) in North Carolina have escalated markedly since 2000. In 2005, we identified a county in the Piedmont region with high case numbers of RMSF. We collected ticks and examined them for bacterial pathogens using molecular methods to determine if a novel tick vector or spotted fever group rickettsiae (SFGR) might be emerging. Amblyomma americanum, the lone star tick, comprised 99.6% of 6,502 specimens collected in suburban landscapes. In contrast, Dermacentor variabilis, the American dog tick, a principal vector of Rickettsia rickettsii, comprised < 1% of the ticks collected. Eleven of 25 lone star tick pools tested were infected with "Rickettsia amblyommii," an informally named SFGR. Sera from patients from the same county who were presumptively diagnosed by local physicians with a tick-borne illness were tested by an indirect immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) assay to confirm clinical diagnoses. Three of six patients classified as probable RMSF cases demonstrated a fourfold or greater rise in IgG class antibody titers between paired acute and convalescent sera to "R. amblyommii" antigens, but not to R. rickettsii antigens. White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, are preferred hosts of lone star ticks. Blood samples collected from hunter-killed deer from the same county were tested by IFA test for antibodies to Ehrlichia chaffeensis and "R. amblyommii." Twenty-eight (87%) of 32 deer were positive for antibodies to E. chaffeensis, but only 1 (3%) of the deer exhibited antibodies to "R. amblyommii," suggesting that deer are not the source of "R. amblyommii" infection for lone star ticks. We propose that some cases of rickettsiosis reported as RMSF may have been caused by "R. amblyommii" transmitted through the bite of A. americanum.}, number={5}, journal={VECTOR-BORNE AND ZOONOTIC DISEASES}, author={Apperson, Charles S. and Engber, Barry and Nicholson, William L. and Mead, Daniel G. and Engel, Jeffrey and Yabsley, Michael J. and Dail, Kathy and Johnson, Joey and Watson, D. Wesley}, year={2008}, month={Oct}, pages={597–606} }
 @article{watson_denning_calibeo-hayes_stringham_mowrey_2007, title={Comparison of two fly traps for the capture of horse flies (Diptera : Tabanidae)}, volume={42}, ISSN={["0749-8004"]}, DOI={10.18474/0749-8004-42.2.123}, abstractNote={A 2-yr study was conducted to examine differences between two commercially available horse fly traps, the Epps® Biting Fly Trap (Farnum Co., Phoenix, AZ) and the Horse Pal® (Newman Enterprises, Omro, WI), placed on three horse farms located in central North Carolina. Traps captured over 8,422 tabanids, representing 4 genera and 19 species. Tabanus quinquevittatus Wiedemann was the most abundant fly collected (2345), followed by the T. lineola F. species complex (2087), T. fulvulus Weidemann (1397) and T. petiolatus Hine (839). Although the Horse Pal captured more flies than the Epps trap, fly capture differences between traps were not significant for the 2000 and 2001 summer seasons (F = 1.39; df = 3, 143; P ≤ 0.249). The Epps trap was most efficacious for early-season (June and July) trapping of T. quinquevittatus and the T. lineola complex in 2000. In contrast, the Horse Pal was more efficacious for these species during the same period in 2001. The Horse Pal was the preferred trap for relative ease in handling.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SCIENCE}, author={Watson, D. W. and Denning, S. S. and Calibeo-Hayes, D. I. and Stringham, S. M. and Mowrey, R. A.}, year={2007}, month={Apr}, pages={123–132} }
 @article{watson_nino_rochon_denning_smith_guy_2007, title={Experimental evaluation of Musca domestica (Diptera : Muscidae) as a vector of Newcastle disease virus}, volume={44}, ISSN={["0022-2585"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[666:EEOMDD]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={House flies, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), were examined for their ability to harbor and transmit Newcastle disease virus (family Paramyxoviridae, genus Avulavirus, NDV) by using a mesogenic NDV strain. Laboratory-reared flies were experimentally exposed to NDV (Roakin strain) by allowing flies to imbibe an inoculum consisting of chicken embryo-propagated virus. NDV was detected in dissected crops and intestinal tissues from exposed flies for up to 96 and 24 h postexposure, respectively; no virus was detected in crops and intestines of sham-exposed flies. The potential of the house fly to directly transmit NDV to live chickens was examined by placing 14-d-old chickens in contact with NDV-exposed house flies 2 h after flies consumed NDV inoculum. NDV-exposed house flies contained approximately 10(4) 50% infectious doses (ID50) per fly, but no transmission of NDV was observed in chickens placed in contact with exposed flies at densities as high as 25 flies per bird. Subsequent dose-response studies demonstrated that oral exposure, the most likely route for fly-to-chicken transmission, required an NDV (Roakin) dose > or =10(6) ID50. These results indicate that house flies are capable of harboring NDV (Roakin) but that they are poor vectors of the virus because they carry an insufficient virus titer to cause infection.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Watson, D. Wes and Nino, Elina L. and Rochon, Kateryn and Denning, Steve and Smith, Lynda and Guy, James S.}, year={2007}, month={Jul}, pages={666–671} }
 @article{bertone_green_washburn_poore_watson_2006, title={The contribution of tunneling dung beetles to pasture soil nutrition}, ISBN={1547-4631}, DOI={10.1094/fg-2006-0711-02-rs}, abstractNote={The effect of dung beetle activity on soil nutrition was studied in three distinct soil types under laboratory conditions. Two tunneling dung beetles, Onthophagus gazella (Fabricius) and Onthophagus taurus (Schreber), were allowed to incorporate cattle dung, for brood production, into a piedmont Cecil clay soil, a coastal plain sandy-loam soil and commercially available play sand. Controlled treatments included soil alone and soil exposed to dung only. Soils were tested for primary nutrients (P and K), secondary nutrients (Ca and Mg), and micronutrients (Mn, Zn, and Cu), as well as other soil characteristics (pH, exchangeable acidity, etc.). Both O. gazella and O. taurus produced the most offspring in the piedmont clay soil; variable numbers of brood were produced in other soil types. Soils exposed to dung beetle activity were generally higher in nutrient content than both soils left untreated, and those that had been exposed to cattle dung only. In this manner, tunneling dung beetles can be considered vital to nutrient recycling and plant health in pasture systems.}, journal={Forage and Grazinglands}, author={Bertone, M. A. and Green, J. T. and Washburn, S. P. and Poore, M. H. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2006}, pages={1} }
 @article{brandenburg_xia_watson_2005, title={Comparative toxicity and efficacy of selected insecticides in field and greenhouse assays against tawny and southern mole crickets (Orthoptera : Gryllotalpidae)}, volume={40}, ISSN={["0749-8004"]}, DOI={10.18474/0749-8004-40.2.115}, abstractNote={The toxicity of thiamethoxam against nymphs and adults of the tawny mole cricket, Scaptericus vicinus Scudder, and the southern mole cricket, S. borellii Giglio-Tos, was evaluated in the field and greenhouse. Thiamethoxam demonstrated varying levels of mole cricket control in the field studies. The performance of the insecticide appeared to be related to the application timing and formulation. Applications made in late June 1998 provided the best mole cricket control compared to the other two field studies. The LC50 and LC90 values of thiamethoxam against adult southern mole crickets were 1,816 and 9,978 ppm, respectively, using a greenhouse bioassay technique. Another greenhouse study indicated that thiamethoxam at application rates ranging from 154 to 616 g (ai)/ha did not provide acceptable control against medium sized nymphs (third to six instars) of tawny and southern mole crickets. An additional study with fipronil, bifenthrin, and deltamethrin compared mortality of the two species of mole crickets in greenhouse bioassays. In these assays, all insecticides resulted in different levels of mole cricket mortality between the two species. The use of bifenthrin resulted in significantly higher mortality of tawny than southern mole crickets.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SCIENCE}, author={Brandenburg, RL and Xia, Y and Watson, B}, year={2005}, month={Apr}, pages={115–125} }
 @article{calibeo-hayes_denning_stringham_watson_2005, title={Lesser mealworm (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) emergence after mechanical incorporation of poultry litter into field soils}, volume={98}, DOI={10.1093/jee/98.1.229}, abstractNote={Lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), emergence from North Carolina field soils was evaluated in a controlled experiment simulating land application of turkey litter and again in field studies. Adult lesser mealworms were buried in central North Carolina Cecil red clay at depths of 0, 8, 15, 23, and 30 cm and the beetles emerging from the soil counted 1, 3, 7, 10, 13, 17, 21, 24, and 28 d after burial. Beetles emerged from all depths and differences among depths were not significant. Beetles survived at least 28 d buried in the soil at depths < or =30 cm. In seasonal field studies, lesser mealworm emergence from clay soil with poultry litter incorporated by disk, mulch and plow was compared with emergence from plots with no incorporation. Incorporation significantly reduced beetle emergence when poultry litter containing large numbers of beetles was applied to clay field soils during the summer (F = 3.45; df = 3, 143; P = 0.018). Although mechanical incorporation of poultry litter reduced beetle emergence relative to the control, greatest reductions were seen in plowed treatments. Beetle activity was reduced after land application of litter during colder months. Generally, lesser mealworm emergence decreased with time and few beetles emerged from the soil 28 d after litter was applied. Similarly, mechanical incorporation of poultry litter into sandy soils reduced beetle emergence (F = 4.06; df = 3, 143; P < 0.008). In sandy soils typical of eastern North Carolina, disk and plow treatments significantly reduced beetle emergence compared with control.}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Economic Entomology}, author={Calibeo-Hayes, D. and Denning, S. S. and Stringham, S. M. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2005}, pages={229–235} }
 @article{bertone_green_washburn_poore_sorenson_watson_2005, title={Seasonal activity and species composition of dung beetles (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae and Geotrupidae) inhabiting cattle pastures in North Carolina}, volume={98}, ISSN={["1938-2901"]}, DOI={10.1603/0013-8746(2005)098[0309:SAASCO]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Species composition and seasonal distribution of dung beetles were studied on dairy and beef cattle pastures in North Carolina. Study sites included a dairy located in the piedmont region (North Carolina Department of Agriculture Piedmont Research Station, Salisbury, NC) and a combined dairy/beef facility in the coastal plain (North Carolina Department of Agriculture Center for Environmental Farming Systems, Goldsboro, NC). Dung beetles were trapped in cattle pastures from March 2002 through September 2003 by using dung-baited pitfall traps. Trapping yielded 4,111 beetles representing 14 species from the piedmont dairy, including Aphodius prodromus Brahm, a new record for North Carolina. Totals of 57,026 beetles representing 28 species and 28,857 beetles representing 26 species were trapped from the dairy unit and beef unit in the coastal plain site, respectively. Onthophagus gazella (F.), a second new record for North Carolina, was collected from the coastal plain. Beetles common to all collection sites include Aphodius erraticus (L.), Aphodius fimetarius (L.), Aphodius granarius (L.), Aphodius pseudolividus Balthasar, Onthophagus taurus Schreber, Onthophagus hecate hecate Panzer, and Onthophagus pennsylvanicus Harold. The introduced beetle O. taurus dominated the dung beetle population, accounting for >50% of the total beetles caught at either site. Beetle activity was greatest from March until November, with activity declining during the winter. Nine exotic species in the genera Onthophagus and Aphodius represented nearly 95% of the beetles trapped.}, number={3}, journal={ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA}, author={Bertone, M and Green, J and Washburn, S and Poore, M and Sorenson, C and Watson, DW}, year={2005}, month={May}, pages={309–321} }
 @article{gore_zurek_santangelo_stringham_watson_schal_2004, title={Water solutions of boric acid and sugar for management of German cockroach populations in livestock production systems}, volume={97}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-97.2.715}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Gore, JC and Zurek, L and Santangelo, RG and Stringham, SM and Watson, DW and Schal, C}, year={2004}, month={Apr}, pages={715–720} }
 @article{zurek_gore_stringham_watson_waldvogel_schal_2003, title={Boric acid dust as a component of an integrated cockroach management program in confined swine production}, volume={96}, ISSN={["0022-0493"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-96.4.1362}, abstractNote={Boric acid dust treatments were evaluated as a tool for the integrated management of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), in commercial confined swine production. The efficacy of boric acid dust was comparable to that of an organic residual insecticide, cyfluthrin, which is commonly used to control cockroaches in this environment. Fall treatments suppressed the cockroach population for longer durations than treatments in the Spring. Boric acid dust is an effective, inexpensive, and low risk (to animal and human health, and the environment) alternative for the management of cockroaches in livestock production systems.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Zurek, L and Gore, JC and Stringham, SM and Watson, DW and Waldvogel, MG and Schal, C}, year={2003}, month={Aug}, pages={1362–1366} }
 @article{watson_denning_zurek_stringham_elliott_2003, title={Effects of lime hydrate on the growth and development of darkling beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus}, volume={2}, ISBN={1682-8356}, DOI={10.3923/ijps.2003.91.96}, abstractNote={The addition of hydrated lime to poultry litter to control insects and pathogens has a history of support. We examined the effects of hydrated lime litter treatments on the darkling beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus and the fungal pathogen Aspergillus. Hydrated lime application rates were calculated as poultry house equivalents; 22.6, 45.4, 56.7, 90.7 kg per 93 m (50, 100, 125 and 200 lbs per 1,000 ft ), groun d 2 2}, number={2}, journal={International Journal of Poultry Science}, author={Watson, D. W. and Denning, S. S. and Zurek, L. and Stringham, S. M. and Elliott, J.}, year={2003}, pages={91} }
 @article{calibeo-hayes_denning_stringham_guy_smith_watson_2003, title={Mechanical transmission of turkey coronavirus by domestic houseflies (Musca domestica linnaeaus)}, volume={47}, DOI={10.1637/0005-2086(2003)047[0149:MTOTCB]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Domestic houseflies (Musca domestica Linnaeaus) were examined for their ability to harbor and transmit turkey coronavirus (TCV). Laboratory-reared flies were experimentally exposed to TCV by allowing flies to imbibe an inoculum comprised of turkey embryo–propagated virus (NC95 strain). TCV was detected in dissected crops from exposed flies for up to 9 hr postexposure; no virus was detected in crops of sham-exposed flies. TCV was not detected in dissected intestinal tissues collected from exposed or sham-exposed flies at any time postexposure. The potential of the housefly to directly transmit TCV to live turkey poults was examined by placing 7-day-old turkey poults in contact with TCV-exposed houseflies 3 hr after flies consumed TCV inoculum. TCV infection was detected in turkeys placed in contact with TCV-exposed flies at densities as low as one fly/bird (TCV antigens detected at 3 days post fly contact in tissues of 3/12 turkeys); however, increased rates of infection were observed with higher fly densities (TCV antigens detected in 9/12 turkeys after contact with 10 flies/bird). This study demonstrates the potential of the housefly to serve as a mechanical vector of TCV.}, number={1}, journal={Avian Diseases}, author={Calibeo-Hayes, D. and Denning, S. S. and Stringham, S. M. and Guy, James and Smith, L. G. and Watson, D. W.}, year={2003}, pages={149–153} }
 @article{trexler_apperson_zurek_gemeno_schal_kaufman_walker_watson_wallace_2003, title={Role of bacteria in mediating the oviposition responses of Aedes albopictus (Diptera : Culicidae)}, volume={40}, ISSN={["0022-2585"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-2585-40.6.841}, abstractNote={The responses of Aedes albopictus to sources of oviposition attractants and stimulants were evaluated with a behavioral bioassay in which females attracted to odorants emanating from water were trapped on screens coated with an adhesive. Gravid mosquitoes were attracted to volatiles from larval-rearing water and soil-contaminated cotton towels. Bacteria were isolated from these substrates and from an organic infusion made with oak leaves. Through fatty acid-methyl ester analyses, six bacterial isolates from larval-rearing water, two isolates from soil-contaminated cotton towels, and three isolates from oak leaf infusion were identified to species. The response of gravid mosquitoes to these isolates was also evaluated in behavioral bioassays. Water containing Psychrobacter immobilis (from larval-rearing water), Sphingobacterium multivorum (from soil-contaminated cotton towels), and an undetermined Bacillus species (from oak leaf infusion) elicited significantly higher oviposition than control water without bacteria. Only volatiles collected from larval rearing water elicited significant electroantennogram responses in females.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Trexler, JD and Apperson, CS and Zurek, L and Gemeno, C and Schal, C and Kaufman, M and Walker, E and Watson, DW and Wallace, L}, year={2003}, month={Nov}, pages={841–848} }
 @article{stringham_watson_zurek_2003, title={Turkey litter treatment with hydrated lime}, ISBN={0392-0593}, number={9}, journal={Zootecnica International}, author={Stringham, M. and Watson, W. and Zurek, L.}, year={2003}, pages={46} }
 @article{zurek_watson_krasnoff_schal_2002, title={Effect of the entomopathogenic fungus, Entomophthora muscae (Zygomycetes : Entomophthoraceae), on sex pheromone and other cuticular hydrocarbons of the house fly, Musca domestica}, volume={80}, ISSN={["0022-2011"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0022-2011(02)00109-X}, abstractNote={House fly (Musca domestica) males are highly attracted to dead female flies infected with the entomopathogenic fungus Entomophthora muscae. Because males orient to the larger abdomen of infected flies, both visual and chemical cues may be responsible for the heightened attraction to infected flies. Our behavioral assays demonstrated that the attraction is sex-specific-males were attracted more to infected females than to infected males, regardless of cadaver size. We examined the effect of E. muscae on the main component of the house fly sex pheromone, (Z)-9-tricosene, and other cuticular hydrocarbons including n-tricosane, n-pentacosane, (Z)-9-heptacosene, and total hydrocarbons of young (7 days old) and old (18 days old) virgin females. Young E. muscae-infected female flies accumulated significantly less sex pheromone and other hydrocarbons on their cuticular surface than uninfected females, whereas the cuticular hydrocarbons of older flies were unaffected by fungus infection. These results suggest that chemical cues other than (Z)-9-tricosene, visual cues other than abdomen size, or a combination of both sets of cues might be responsible for attraction of house fly males to E. muscae-infected females.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF INVERTEBRATE PATHOLOGY}, author={Zurek, L and Watson, DW and Krasnoff, SB and Schal, C}, year={2002}, month={Jul}, pages={171–176} }
 @article{apperson_harrison_unnasch_hassan_irby_savage_aspen_watson_rueda_engber_et al._2002, title={Host-feeding habits of Culex and other mosquitoes (Diptera : Culicidae) in the Borough of Queens in New York City, with characters and techniques for identification of Culex mosquitoes}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1938-2928"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-2585-39.5.777}, abstractNote={The host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes (n = 247) collected in the Borough of Queens in New York City in July and August 2000 were investigated using an indirect ELISA and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-heteroduplex assay. Culex pipiens L. and Cx. restuans Theobald fed primarily on birds, and their feeding habits support their implication as enzootic vectors of West Nile virus. Culex salinarius Coquillett and Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) fed mainly on mammals, with fewer blood meals taken from birds, and these two species are potential bridge vectors of West Nile virus. Culex mosquitoes took blood meals (n = 54) from 11 different avian species. Only the northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), American robin (Turdus migratorius), and Brown-headed cow bird (MolIothrus ater) were fed upon by all three Culex species. Multiple blood feedings on avian hosts were detected in Cx. pipiens and Cx. restuans. Species identifications of Culex mosquitoes made using morphological characteristics were confirmed with a PCR assay that employed species-specific primers. All Cx. pipiens (n = 20) and Cx. salinarius (n = 10) specimens were correctly identified, but three (20%) of 15 Cx. restuans were misidentified as Cx. pipiens.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Apperson, CS and Harrison, BA and Unnasch, TR and Hassan, HK and Irby, WS and Savage, HM and Aspen, SE and Watson, DW and Rueda, LM and Engber, BR and et al.}, year={2002}, month={Sep}, pages={777–785} }
 @article{watson_stringham_denning_washburn_poore_meier_2002, title={Managing the horn fly (Diptera : Muscidae) using an electric walk-through fly trap}, volume={95}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-95.5.1113}, abstractNote={An electric walk-through fly trap was evaluated for the management of the horn fly, Hematobia irritans (L.), on dairy cattle in North Carolina over 2 yr. The trap relies on black lights and electrocution grids to attract and kill flies that are brushed from the cattle passing through. During the first season, horn fly densities were reduced from >1,400 to <200 flies per animal. Horn fly density averaged 269.2 ± 25.8 on cattle using the walk-through fly trap twice daily, and 400.2 ± 43.5 on the control group during the first year. The second year, seasonal mean horn fly density was 177.3 ± 10.8 on cattle using the walk-through fly trap compared with 321.1 ± 15.8 on the control group. No insecticides were used to control horn flies during this 2-yr study.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Watson, DW and Stringham, SM and Denning, SS and Washburn, SP and Poore, MH and Meier, A}, year={2002}, month={Oct}, pages={1113-+} }
 @article{zurek_watson_schal_2002, title={Synergism between Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycota : Hyphomycetes) and boric acid against the German cockroach (Dictyoptera : Blattellidae)}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1090-2112"]}, DOI={10.1006/bcon.2001.1012}, abstractNote={Mortality of German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), caused by Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin strain AC-1 alone and in combination with different formulations of boric acid, was evaluated in laboratory bioassays. Topical application of M. anisopliae alone (8.96 × 109 conidia/m2) required 28 days to cause >92% cockroach mortality (LT50 = 10 days). In contrast, in combination with boric acid (topically applied as a dust or in drinking water), M. anisopliae killed cockroaches significantly faster than without boric acid. M. anisopliae conidial dust (8.96 × 108 conidia/m2) with either 12.5% (w/w) boric acid dust or 0.1% (w/v) boric acid in drinking water killed 100% of the cockroaches in only 8 days (LT50 = 5 days) and 10 days (LT50 = 6 days), respectively, without compromising the fungus emergence from cadavers. Replacement of M. anisopliae with flour dust or heat-killed M. anisopliae conidia eliminated this effect, demonstrating that it was not the consequence of greater boric acid ingestion due to more extensive cockroach grooming upon exposure to M. anisopliae conidia. Moreover, injections of a low dose of M. anisopliae, which caused only 30% mortality, together with sublethal concentrations of boric acid into the cockroach hemocoel resulted in a doubling of mortality. Statistical analysis demonstrated a synergistic interaction between these two insecticides.}, number={3}, journal={BIOLOGICAL CONTROL}, author={Zurek, L and Watson, DW and Schal, C}, year={2002}, month={Mar}, pages={296–302} }
 @article{watson_kaufman_rutz_glenister_2001, title={Impact of the darkling beetle Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) on establishment of the predaceous beetle Carcinops pumilio (Erichson) for Musca domestica control in caged-layer poultry houses}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1090-2112"]}, DOI={10.1006/bcon.2000.0874}, abstractNote={Abstract Understanding the insect natural history in a caged-layer poultry house is essential to developing Integrated Pest Management strategies. In this study we observed the interaction of three insects commonly found in poultry manure: a filth fly predator, Carcinops pumilio (Erichson) (Histeridae), and two poultry pests, the house fly, Musca domestica L. (Muscidae), and the darkling beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Tenebrionidae). Manure samples were collected weekly and the insects were extracted using Berlese–Tullgren funnels. Collected insects were identified to species and life stage. When C. pumilio populations equaled or exceeded those of the larval house fly, subsequent adult house fly populations were not considered pestiferous. C. pumilio adult and larval cohorts varied significantly among poultry houses. Few C. pumilio larvae were found in houses with abundant darkling beetle populations, suggesting a negative impact on the establishment of C. pumilio. Laboratory studies confirmed that larval darkling beetles significantly reduce the survival of C. pumilio eggs and larvae. Adult darkling beetles did not reduce C. pumilio egg or larval survival.}, number={1}, journal={BIOLOGICAL CONTROL}, author={Watson, DW and Kaufman, PE and Rutz, DA and Glenister, CS}, year={2001}, month={Jan}, pages={8–15} }
 @article{zurek_denning_schal_watson_2001, title={Vector competence of Musca domestica (Diptera : Muscidae) for Yersinia pseudotuberculosis}, volume={38}, ISSN={["0022-2585"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-2585-38.2.333}, abstractNote={The vectoR potential of adult house flies. Musca domestica L., for Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (Pfeiffer), a pathogen of domestic animals and humans, was investigated. Adult flies were allowed to feed on trypticase soy broth (TSB) containing Y. pseudotuberculosis for 6 h and then transferred to sterile containers with sterile TSB as a source of water and nutrients. At 6-h intervals, all flies were transferred to sterile containers with sterile TSB and 10 randomly selected flies were examined for the pathogen. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis did not establish a permanent population in the house fly colony; however, viable cells were detected from the digestive tract of flies for up to 36 h after the initial exposure, and flies contaminated their environment (sterile TSB) for up to 30 h after the exposure. These results demonstrated that house flies can carry Y. psedotuberculosis for a considerable period and therefore must be considered as a potential mechanical vector of pseudotuberculosis infection.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Zurek, L and Denning, SS and Schal, C and Watson, DW}, year={2001}, month={Mar}, pages={333–335} }
 @article{zurek_schal_watson_2000, title={Diversity and contribution of the intestinal bacterial community to the development of Musca domestica (Diptera : Muscidae) larvae}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0022-2585"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-2585-37.6.924}, abstractNote={The bacterial diversity in the intestinal tract of Musca domestica L. was examined in larvae collected from turkey bedding and corn silage. Aerobic culturing yielded 25 bacterial species, including 11 from larvae collected from turkey bedding and 14 from larvae collected from corn silage. Providencia rettgeri (Hadley, Elkins & Caldwell) was the only species common to both environments. Two mammalian pathogens, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (Pfeiffer) and Ochrobactrum anthropi (Holmes), were isolated from the larval intestinal tracts. The majority of isolates represented facultatively anaerobic heterotrophs capable of fermentation. The significance of these bacteria for development of house fly larvae was evaluated by bioassays on trypticase soy egg yolk agar. Pure cultures of individual bacterial species isolated from the intestinal tract of larvae from turkey bedding supported development of flies to a much greater extent than those isolated from larvae from corn silage. House fly development was best supported by a Streptococcus sanguis (White) isolate. The significance of bacteria for development of house flies is discussed.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Zurek, L and Schal, C and Watson, DW}, year={2000}, month={Nov}, pages={924–928} }
 @article{watson_guy_stringham_2000, title={Limited transmission of turkey coronavirus in young turkeys by adult Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera : Tenebrionidae)}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0022-2585"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-2585(2000)037[0480:LTOTCI]2.0.CO;2}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Watson, DW and Guy, JS and Stringham, SH}, year={2000}, month={May}, pages={480–483} }
 @article{watson_rutz_keshavarz_waldron_1998, title={House fly (Musca domestica L.) survival after mechanical incorporation of poultry manure into field soil}, volume={7}, ISSN={["1056-6171"]}, DOI={10.1093/japr/7.3.302}, abstractNote={Abstract Land application is often a routine part of manure management. Not only is it a practical means of disposing large amounts of poultry wastes, it is an efficient use of an organic fertilizer. Unfortunately, poultry manure may contain a large number of house fly larvae and pupae that can become a nuisance if they complete development. Mechanical incorporation of poultry manure is often recommended to help reduce odor; it has also been though to reduce the potential for a fly outbreak. This study examined fly survival following burial in field soil at depths of 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 in. One quarter of the adult house flies developing from pupae were able to crawl through 12 in. of soil to reach the surface. Survival of flies buried closer to the surface was greater. We compared house fly survival following disk, harrow, and moldboard plow incorporation of manure to surface application. No method of incorporation was better than the surface application. Adult flies reached outbreak proportions 10 days following application and the outbreak lasted another 11 days.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF APPLIED POULTRY RESEARCH}, author={Watson, DW and Rutz, DA and Keshavarz, K and Waldron, JK}, year={1998}, pages={302–308} }