@article{businger_adams_koch_kaplan_2001, title={Extraction of geopotential height and temperature structure from profiler and rawinsonde winds}, volume={129}, ISSN={["0027-0644"]}, DOI={10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<1729:EOGHAT>2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Mesoscale height and temperature fields can be extracted from the observed wind field by making use of the full divergence equation. Mass changes associated with irrotational ageostrophic motions are retained for a nearly complete description of the height field. Above the boundary layer, in the absence of friction, the divergence equation includes terms composed of the components of the wind and a Laplacian of the geopotential height field. Once the mass field is determined, the thermal structure is obtained through application of the hypsometric equation. In this paper an error analysis of this divergence method is undertaken to estimate the potential magnitude of errors associated with random errors in the wind data. Previous applications of the divergence method have been refined in the following ways. (i) The domain over which the method is applied is expanded to encompass the entire STORM-FEST domain. (ii) Wind data from 23 profiler and 38 rawinsonde sites are combined in the analysis. (iii) Observed profiler and rawinsonde data are interpolated to grid points through a modified objective analysis, and (iv) the variation in elevation of the profiler sites is taken into account. The results of the application of the divergence method to the combined wind data from profiler and rawinsonde sites show good agreement between the retrieved heights and temperatures and the observed values at rawinsonde sites. Standard deviations of the difference between the retrieved and observed data lie well within the precision of the rawinsonde instruments. The difference field shows features whose magnitude is significantly larger than the errors predicted by the error analysis, and these features are systematic rather than random in nature, suggesting that the retrieved fields are able to resolve mesoscale signatures not fully captured by the rawinsonde data alone. The divergence method is also applied solely to the profiler data to demonstrate the potential of the divergence method to provide mass and thermal fields on a routine basis at synoptic times when operational rawinsonde data are not available. A comparison of the heights derived from the profiler winds with those independently measured by rawinsondes indicates that valuable information on the evolution of atmospheric height and temperature fields can be retrieved between conventional rawinsonde release times through application of the divergence method. The implications of the results for applications of the method in weather analysis and in numerical weather prediction are discussed.}, number={7}, journal={MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW}, author={Businger, S and Adams, ME and Koch, SE and Kaplan, ML}, year={2001}, pages={1729–1739} }
 @article{bauman_kaplan_businger_1997, title={Nowcasting convective activity for space shuttle landings during easterly flow regimes}, volume={12}, DOI={10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0078:NCAFSS>2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Space shuttle landings at the shuttle landing facility at Kennedy Space Center are subject to strict weather-related launch commit criteria and flight rules. Complex launch commit criteria and end-of-mission flight rules demand very accurate nowcasts (forecasts of less than 2 h) of cloud, wind, visibility, precipitation, turbulence, and thunderstorms prior to shuttle launches and landings. During easterly flow regimes the onset of convective activity has proven to be particularly difficult to predict. Contrasting weather ranging from clear skies to thunderstorms occurs on days with seemingly similar synoptic environments. Four days of easterly flow during the Convection and Precipitation/Electrification (CaPE) Experiment were investigated in an effort to identify and simulate key features that distinguish convectively active and suppressed conditions. Data from CaPE and operational data, including satellite imagery and National Centers for Environmental Prediction model analysis output over the F...}, number={1}, journal={Weather and Forecasting}, author={Bauman, W. H. and Kaplan, M. L. and Businger, S.}, year={1997}, pages={78–107} }
 @article{bevis_businger_herring_rocken_anthes_ware_1992, title={GPS METEOROLOGY - REMOTE-SENSING OF ATMOSPHERIC WATER-VAPOR USING THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM}, volume={97}, ISSN={["2169-8996"]}, DOI={10.1029/92JD01517}, abstractNote={We present a new approach to remote sensing of water vapor based on the global positioning system (GPS). Geodesists and geophysicists have devised methods for estimating the extent to which signals propagating from GPS satellites to ground‐based GPS receivers are delayed by atmospheric water vapor. This delay is parameterized in terms of a time‐varying zenith wet delay (ZWD) which is retrieved by stochastic filtering of the GPS data. Given surface temperature and pressure readings at the GPS receiver, the retrieved ZWD can be transformed with very little additional uncertainty into an estimate of the integrated water vapor (IWV) overlying that receiver. Networks of continuously operating GPS receivers are being constructed by geodesists, geophysicists, government and military agencies, and others in order to implement a wide range of positioning capabilities. These emerging GPS networks offer the possibility of observing the horizontal distribution of IWV or, equivalently, precipitable water with unprecedented coverage and a temporal resolution of the order of 10 min. These measurements could be utilized in operational weather forecasting and in fundamental research into atmospheric storm systems, the hydrologic cycle, atmospheric chemistry, and global climate change. Specially designed, dense GPS networks could be used to sense the vertical distribution of water vapor in their immediate vicinity. Data from ground‐based GPS networks could be analyzed in concert with observations of GPS satellite occultations by GPS receivers in low Earth orbit to characterize the atmosphere at planetary scale.}, number={D14}, journal={JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH-ATMOSPHERES}, author={BEVIS, M and BUSINGER, S and HERRING, TA and ROCKEN, C and ANTHES, RA and WARE, RH}, year={1992}, month={Oct}, pages={15787–15801} }