@article{lewbart_papich_whitt-smith_2005, title={Pharmacokinetics of florfenicol in the red pacu (Piaractus brachypomus) after single dose intramuscular administration}, volume={28}, ISSN={["0140-7783"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2885.2005.00641.x}, abstractNote={Florfenicol is a structural analogue of chloramphenicol similar to thiamphenicol, but with more activity against some bacteria than chloramphenicol (Cannon et al., 1990). Florfenicol works by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis at the ribosome (Cannon et al., 1990). Florfenicol activity against bacteria differs from chloramphenicol because florfenicol is not susceptible to the same resistance mechanisms as chloramphenicol (Papich & Riviere, 2001). Organisms resistant to chloramphenicol may still be susceptible to florfenicol. Florfenicol has been demonstrated to be efficacious against bacteria (e.g. Aeromonas salmonicida, Vibrio salmonicida, and Edwardsiella ictaluri) of fish, especially salmonids and catfish (Fukui et al., 1987; Inglis & Richards, 1991; Inglis et al., 1991; Nordmo et al., 1994,1998; Samuelsen et al., 1998; Gaunt et al., 2003,2004). Florfenicol has been proven to be clinically effective in controlling a variety of bacterial diseases in salmonids and is approved for use in Europe, Norway, Canada, Japan, and South Korea for a variety of fish species (Gaunt et al., 2003). Florfenicol has been administered orally for treatment of bacterial infections of captive fish in Europe and Canada under the trade names Aquafen and Aquaflor (Schering-Plough, Kenilworth, NJ, USA), respectively. In rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) kept at 10 C, an oral dose of 10 mg/kg had a mean residence time of 21 h and a Cmax of 3.23 mcg/mL (Pinault et al., 1997). Pharmacokinetics have also been described for Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar (Martinsen et al., 1993). Other work has determined florfenicol to be safe and effective for the treatment of E. ictaluri (enteric septicemia of catfish) in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) when administered orally in feed (Gaunt et al., 2003, 2004). The objectives of this study were to determine the maximum serum concentrations, elimination half-life, and relative bioavailability of florfenicol in the red pacu following single-dose intramuscular (i.m.) administration. We used 16 red pacu for the study. Fish were of uniform age and size (approximately 3.5 years old and weighing 400–500 g each). Fish were individually maintained in sixteen 75 L aquariums which all shared a common water supply via a recirculating system. Important water quality parameters such as temperature (25 C), pH 7.2, total alkalinity (51.0 mg/L), and specific gravity (1.000) were frequently monitored and actively maintained. Twelve fish were weighed immediately prior to epaxial i.m. dosing with 10.0 mg/kg florfenicol (NuFlor , Schering-Plough). The four control fish received equivalent volumes of i.m. saline. Fish were manually restrained and approximately 0.4 mL of blood was taken from the caudal vein from each fish and four control fish using a sodium heparinized 1 cc syringe with a 25 G needle at the following times postdrug administration: 0, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h. The four control fish were used to determine if any residual or excreted florfenicol in the recirculating system was absorbed by the study pacu. Florfenicol plasma concentrations were analyzed with reversephase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The HPLC apparatus consisted of a pump (Waters Model 600 Pump; Millipore Corp., Milford, MA, USA), autosampler (Hewlett Packard Series 1050 Autosampler; Hewlett Packard, Palo Alto, CA, USA), UV detector (HP Series 1050 UV detector; Hewlett Packard), and computer for data collection and analysis (Hewlett Packard HPLC ChemStation running Windows 3.1 on a Hewlett Packard Vectra 486/33N computer). Eluates were separated with a C-8 reverse-phase HPLC column (Zorbax RXC8 4.6 mm · 15 cm; 5 lm MAC-MOD Analytical Inc., Chadds Ford, PA, USA). A guard column containing identical packing material also was used (Zorbax RX-C18, 4 mm · 1.25 cm guard column). Florfenicol was eluted with a mobile phase consisting of 73% distilled water and 27% (v/v) acetonitrile. No buffers or mobile phase modifiers were added. The mobile phase was filtered and degassed prior to use and was continuously sparged with helium during the analysis. The flow rate was 1.0 mL/min. Injection volume was 20 mcL. Florfenicol was detected with UV detection at a wavelength of 223 nm. Retention time for florfenicol was approximately 5.5–6.5 min. J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap. 28, 317–319, 2005. SHORT COMMUNICATION}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS}, author={Lewbart, GA and Papich, MG and Whitt-Smith, D}, year={2005}, month={Jun}, pages={317–319} }
 @article{flammer_whitt-smith_2002, title={Plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin in psittacine birds offered water medicated with 200 mg/L of the injectable formulation of enrofloxacin}, volume={16}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/1082-6742(2002)016[0286:pcoeip]2.0.co;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Enrofloxacin is commonly used to treat bacterial infections in psittacine birds. Enrofloxacin is most effective if dosed per os or by injection, but can be delivered via medicated drinking water. The purpose of this project was to measure the plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin achieved by offering drinking water medicated with an injectable enrofloxacin formulation at 200 mg/L to 16 psittacine birds for 10 days. The birds included 6 cockatoos (Cacatua species), 4 conures (Aratinga species), 2 Senegal parrots (Poicephalus senegalus), 2 red-shouldered macaws (Ara nobilis), and 2 grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). The injectable formulation was selected because it is readily available in most veterinary hospitals. Blood samples for plasma enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin assay were collected at 1600–1730 hours on treatment days 2 and 4 and 0830–1000 hours on days 6 and 8. Mean plasma enrofloxacin concentrations (± SD) ranged from 0.11 ± 0.05 to 2.00 ± 1.43 μg/ml for each bird and were 0.40 μg/ml or less for 14 of 16 birds. Ciprofloxacin concentrations were below the limits of detection for all but 2 samples. This study shows that water medicated with the injectable formulation of enrofloxacin at 200 mg/L maintains plasma concentrations in psittacine birds that are adequate only for treating systemic infections caused by highly susceptible bacteria.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Flammer, K and Whitt-Smith, D}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={286–290} }
 @article{flammer_whitt-smith_papich_2001, title={Plasma concentrations of doxycycline in selected psittacine birds when administered in water for potential treatment of Chlamydophila psittaci infection}, volume={15}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/1082-6742(2001)015[0276:PCODIS]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Infection by Chlamydophila psittaci (formerly Chlamydia psittaci) is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in companion psittacine birds and is transmissible to humans. Replication of Chlamydophila is inhibited by plasma doxycycline concentrations greater than 1 μg/ml, but prolonged treatment periods of 30–45 days are needed to eliminate infection. Medication of birds for this prolonged period is difficult with current treatment methods. In this study, drinking water medicated with doxycycline hyclate at 800 mg/L was provided ad libitum to healthy African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus timneh) and Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffini) for 42 days. Blood samples for doxycycline analysis were collected on treatment days 4, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42. Mean doxycycline concentrations exceeded 1 μg/ml throughout the 42-day treatment period. In the African grey parrots, the mean doxycycline concentration (± SD) for all plasma samples collected during the study was 1.51 ± 0.68 μg/ml and doxycycline concentrations were greater than 1 μg/ml in 73% of the samples. In the Goffin's cockatoos, the overall mean was 2.78 ± 1.00 μg/ml and doxycycline concentrations exceeded 1 μg/ml in all samples. No adverse effects were noted in the African grey parrots. All of the 8 treated Goffin's cockatoos were physically healthy, but changes in plasma biochemical analyses suggested mild hepatic damage in 3 birds. Results of plasma biochemical analyses in these cockatoos were within reference ranges when retested 7 days after doxycycline treatment ended. The results of this study suggest that doxycycline-medicated water can safely maintain plasma concentrations adequate for treating avian Chlamydophila infections in African grey parrots and Goffin's cockatoos housed under standardized conditions.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Flammer, K and Whitt-Smith, D and Papich, M}, year={2001}, month={Dec}, pages={276–282} }