@article{evans_netiffee-osborne_webb_jay_flammer_2009, title={Assessment of the Microbial Quality of Water Offered to Captive Psittacine Birds}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/2008-017R.1}, abstractNote={Abstract To investigate potential water-source microbes, 44 samples of water offered to individually caged psittacine birds were aseptically collected from 14 bird-owning households and evaluated for the presence of coliforms, Escherichia coli, heterotrophic bacteria, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. No samples were positive for E coli; however, 21 of 25 water samples (84%) from open containers and 7 of 19 samples (37%) from bottles exceeded US Environmental Protection Agency standards for coliforms. Fourteen of 24 open containers (58%) and 7 of 19 bottles (37%) grew heterotrophic bacteria that exceeded 500 colonies/ml. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from water samples from 1 open container and 1 bottle. These results suggest that potentially pathogenic bacteria can be found in water offered to companion psittacine birds. Additional studies are needed to assess whether these bacteria are clinically important causes of disease and to develop husbandry methods that will reduce contamination.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Evans, Erika E. and Netiffee-Osborne, Julie and Webb, Donna and Jay, Paula and Flammer, Keven}, year={2009}, month={Mar}, pages={10–17} }
 @article{flammer_nettifee osborne_webb_foster_dillard_davis_2008, title={Pharmacokinetics of voriconazole after oral administration of single and multiple doses in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus timneh)}, volume={69}, ISSN={0002-9645}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.69.1.114}, DOI={10.2460/ajvr.69.1.114}, abstractNote={Abstract
Objective—To determine the pharmacokinetics and safety of orally administered voriconazole in African grey parrots.
Animals—20 clinically normal Timneh African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus timneh).
Procedures—In single-dose trials, 12 parrots were each administered 6, 12, and 18 mg of voriconazole/kg orally and plasma concentrations of voriconazole were determined via high-pressure liquid chromatography. In a multiple-dose trial, voriconazole (18 mg/kg) was administered orally to 6 birds every 12 hours for 9 days; a control group (2 birds) received tap water. Treatment effects were assessed via observation, clinicopathologic analyses (3 assessments), and measurement of trough plasma voriconazole concentrations (2 assessments).
Results—Voriconazole's elimination half-life was short (1.1 to 1.6 hours). Higher doses resulted in disproportional increases in the maximum plasma voriconazole concentration and area under the curve. Trough plasma voriconazole concentrations achieved in the multiple-dose trial were lower than those achieved after administration of single doses. Polyuria (the only adverse treatment effect) developed in treated and control birds but was more severe in the treatment group.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—In African grey parrots, voriconazole has dose-dependent pharmacokinetics and may induce its own metabolism. Oral administration of 12 to 18 mg of voriconazole/kg twice daily is a rational starting dose for treatment of African grey parrots infected with Aspergillus or other fungal organisms that have a minimal inhibitory concentration for voriconazole ≤ 0.4 μg/mL. Higher doses may be needed to maintain plasma voriconazole concentrations during long-term treatment. Safety and efficacy of various voriconazole treatment regimens in this species require investigation.}, number={1}, journal={American Journal of Veterinary Research}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Flammer, Keven and Nettifee Osborne, Julie A. and Webb, Donna J. and Foster, Laura E. and Dillard, Stacy L. and Davis, Jennifer L.}, year={2008}, month={Jan}, pages={114–121} }