@article{kellner_parsons_kays_millspaugh_rota_2022, title={A Two-Species Occupancy Model with a Continuous-Time Detection Process Reveals Spatial and Temporal Interactions}, volume={1}, ISSN={["1537-2693"]}, DOI={10.1007/s13253-021-00482-y}, journal={JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL STATISTICS}, author={Kellner, Kenneth F. and Parsons, Arielle W. and Kays, Roland and Millspaugh, Joshua J. and Rota, Christopher T.}, year={2022}, month={Jan} }
 @article{parsons_wikelski_wolff_dodel_kays_2022, title={Intensive hunting changes human-wildlife relationships}, volume={10}, ISSN={["2167-8359"]}, DOI={10.7717/peerj.14159}, abstractNote={Wildlife alter their behaviors in a trade-off between consuming food and fear of becoming food themselves. The risk allocation hypothesis posits that variation in the scale, intensity and longevity of predation threats can influence the magnitude of antipredator behavioral responses. Hunting by humans represents a threat thought to be perceived by wildlife similar to how they perceive a top predator, although hunting intensity and duration varys widely around the world. Here we evaluate the effects of hunting pressure on wildlife by comparing how two communities of mammals under different management schemes differ in their relative abundance and response to humans. Using camera traps to survey wildlife across disturbance levels (yards, farms, forests) in similar landscapes in southern Germany and southeastern USA, we tested the prediction of the risk allocation hypothesis: that the higher intensity and longevity of hunting in Germany (year round vs 3 months, 4x higher harvest/km2/year) would reduce relative abundance of hunted species and result in a larger fear-based response to humans (i.e., more spatial and temporal avoidance). We further evaluated how changes in animal abundance and behavior would result in potential changes to ecological impacts (i.e., herbivory and predation). We found that hunted species were relatively less abundant in Germany and less associated with humans on the landscape (i.e., yards and urban areas), but did not avoid humans temporally in hunted areas while hunted species in the USA showed the opposite pattern. These results are consistent with the risk allocation hypothesis where we would expect more spatial avoidance in response to threats of longer duration (i.e., year-round hunting in Germany vs. 3-month duration in USA) and less spatial avoidance but more temporal avoidance for threats of shorter duration. The expected ecological impacts of mammals in all three habitats were quite different between countries, most strikingly due to the decreases in the relative abundance of hunted species in Germany, particularly deer, with no proportional increase in unhunted species, resulting in American yards facing the potential for 25x more herbivory than German yards. Our results suggest that the duration and intensity of managed hunting can have strong and predictable effects on animal abundance and behavior, with the potential for corresponding changes in the ecological impacts of wildlife. Hunting can be an effective tool for reducing wildlife conflict due to overabundance but may require more intensive harvest than is seen in much of North America.}, journal={PEERJ}, author={Parsons, Arielle Waldstein and Wikelski, Martin and Wolff, Brigitta Keeves and Dodel, Jan and Kays, Roland}, year={2022}, month={Oct} }
 @article{parsons_clark_kays_2022, title={Monitoring small mammal abundance using NEON data: are calibrated indices useful?}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1545-1542"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyac096}, DOI={10.1093/jmammal/gyac096}, abstractNote={Abstract Small mammals are important to the functioning of ecological communities with changes to their abundances used to track impacts of environmental change. While capture–recapture estimates of absolute abundance are preferred, indices of abundance continue to be used in cases of limited sampling, rare species with little data, or unmarked individuals. Improvement to indices can be achieved by calibrating them to absolute abundance but their reliability across years, sites, or species is unclear. To evaluate this, we used the US National Ecological Observatory Network capture–recapture data for 63 small mammal species over 46 sites from 2013 to 2019. We generated 17,155 absolute abundance estimates using capture–recapture analyses and compared these to two standard abundance indices, and three types of calibrated indices. We found that neither raw abundance indices nor index calibrations were reliable approximations of absolute abundance, with raw indices less correlated with absolute abundance than index calibrations (raw indices overall R2 < 0.5, index calibration overall R2 > 0.6). Performance of indices and index calibrations varied by species, with those having higher and less variable capture probabilities performing best. We conclude that indices and index calibration methods should be used with caution with a count of individuals being the best index to use, especially if it can be calibrated with capture probability. None of the indices we tested should be used for comparing different species due to high variation in capture probabilities. Hierarchical models that allow for sharing of capture probabilities over species or plots (i.e., joint-likelihood models) may offer a better solution to mitigate the cost and effort of large-scale small mammal sampling while still providing robust estimates of abundance.}, journal={JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY}, author={Parsons, Arielle W. and Clark, James S. and Kays, Roland}, year={2022}, month={Nov} }
 @article{parsons_dawrs_nelson_norton_virdi_hasan_epperson_holst_chan_leos-barajas_et al._2022, title={Soil Properties and Moisture Synergistically Influence Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Prevalence in Natural Environments of Hawai'i}, volume={4}, ISSN={["1098-5336"]}, DOI={10.1128/aem.00018-22}, abstractNote={Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are ubiquitous in the environment, being found commonly in soils and natural bodies of freshwater. However, little is known about the environmental niches of NTM and how they relate to NTM prevalence in homes and other human-dominated areas.}, journal={APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY}, author={Parsons, Arielle W. and Dawrs, Stephanie N. and Nelson, Stephen T. and Norton, Grant J. and Virdi, Ravleen and Hasan, Nabeeh A. and Epperson, L. Elaine and Holst, Brady and Chan, Edward D. and Leos-Barajas, Vianey and et al.}, year={2022}, month={Apr} }
 @article{parsons_kellner_rota_schuttler_millspaugh_kays_2022, title={The effect of urbanization on spatiotemporal interactions between gray foxes and coyotes}, volume={13}, ISSN={["2150-8925"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3993}, DOI={10.1002/ecs2.3993}, abstractNote={Interactions between species can influence their distribution and fitness, with potential cascading ecosystem effects. Human disturbance can affect these competitive dynamics but is difficult to measure due to potential simultaneous spatial and temporal responses. We used camera traps with a multispecies occupancy model incorporating a continuous-time detection process to evaluate spatial and temporal interactions between two competing carnivore species, coyote (Canis latrans) and gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), along an urbanization gradient. Coyotes were less likely to occupy high housing density sites than gray foxes, but the two species were more likely to co-occur in suburban forest fragments. Gray foxes were less likely to occupy low housing density sites in the presence of coyotes, shifted their activity patterns to be more nocturnal when coyotes were present and avoided sites recently used by coyotes. These effects were most pronounced where forest cover was low, suggesting these shifts are not necessary where forest cover is high, perhaps due to the gray fox's ability to climb trees. Gray foxes did not spatially or temporally avoid coyotes moving through the suburban matrix nor did precipitation mediate temporal avoidance in suburban habitats (i.e., by washing away scent), possibly because coyotes are less likely to establish territories at high housing densities, and thus less likely to scent mark. As reports of gray fox declines in portions of North America mount and coyotes are implicated, our results suggest that preserving tree cover could be important for gray fox persistence. At least 50% of forest cover in a 1 km radius resulted in lower coyote occupancy with gray fox occupancy rising to ≥0.1, suggesting a good benchmark for management.}, number={3}, journal={ECOSPHERE}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Parsons, Arielle W. and Kellner, Kenneth F. and Rota, Christopher T. and Schuttler, Stephanie G. and Millspaugh, Joshua J. and Kays, Roland W.}, year={2022}, month={Mar} }
 @article{lasky_parsons_schuttler_hess_sutherland_kalies_clark_olfenbuttel_matthews_clark_et al._2021, title={Carolina critters: a collection of camera-trap data from wildlife surveys across North Carolina}, volume={6}, ISSN={["1939-9170"]}, DOI={10.1002/ecy.3372}, abstractNote={Camera trap surveys are useful to understand animal species population trends, distribution, habitat preference, behavior, community dynamics, periods of activity, and species associations with environmental conditions. This information is ecologically important, because many species play important roles in local ecosystems as predators, herbivores, seed dispersers, and disease vectors. Additionally, many of the larger wildlife species detected by camera traps are economically important through hunting, trapping, or ecotourism. Here we present a data set of camera-trap surveys from 6,043 locations across all 100 counties of North Carolina, USA from 2009 to 2019. These data come from 26 survey initiatives and contain 215,108 records of 36 mammal species and three species of terrestrial birds. This large data set increases the geographical distribution data for these 39 mammal and bird species by >500% over what is available for North Carolina in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). These data can be used to conduct inquiries about species, populations, communities, or ecosystems, and to produce useful information on wildlife behavior, distribution, and interactions. There are no copyright restrictions. Please cite this paper when using the data for publication.}, journal={ECOLOGY}, author={Lasky, Monica and Parsons, Arielle W. and Schuttler, Stephanie G. and Hess, George and Sutherland, Ron and Kalies, Liz and Clark, Staci and Olfenbuttel, Colleen and Matthews, Jessie and Clark, James S. and et al.}, year={2021}, month={Jun} }
 @article{suraci_gaynor_allen_alexander_brashares_cendejas-zarelli_crooks_elbroch_forrester_green_et al._2021, title={Disturbance type and species life history predict mammal responses to humans}, volume={5}, ISSN={["1365-2486"]}, DOI={10.1111/gcb.15650}, abstractNote={Human activity and land use change impact every landscape on Earth, driving declines in many animal species while benefiting others. Species ecological and life history traits may predict success in human-dominated landscapes such that only species with “winning” combinations of traits will persist in disturbed environments. However, this link between species traits and successful coexistence with humans remains obscured by the complexity of anthropogenic disturbances and variability among study systems. We compiled detection data for 24 mammal species from 61 populations across North America to quantify the effects of (1) the direct presence of people and (2) the human footprint (landscape modification) on mammal occurrence and activity levels. Thirty-three percent of mammal species exhibited a net negative response (i.e., reduced occurrence or activity) to increasing human presence and/or footprint across populations, whereas 58% of species were positively associated with increasing disturbance. However, apparent benefits of human presence and footprint tended to decrease or disappear at higher disturbance levels, indicative of thresholds in mammal species’ capacity to tolerate disturbance or exploit human-dominated landscapes. Species ecological and life history traits were strong predictors of their responses to human footprint, with increasing footprint favoring smaller, less carnivorous, faster-reproducing species. The positive and negative effects of human presence were distributed more randomly with respect to species trait values, with apparent winners and losers across a range of body sizes and dietary guilds. Differential responses by some species to human presence and human footprint highlight the importance of considering these two forms of human disturbance separately when estimating anthropogenic impacts on wildlife. Our approach provides insights into the complex mechanisms through which human activities shape mammal communities globally, revealing the drivers of the loss of larger predators in human-modified landscapes.}, journal={GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY}, author={Suraci, Justin P. and Gaynor, Kaitlyn M. and Allen, Maximilian L. and Alexander, Peter and Brashares, Justin S. and Cendejas-Zarelli, Sara and Crooks, Kevin and Elbroch, L. Mark and Forrester, Tavis and Green, Austin M. and et al.}, year={2021}, month={May} }
 @article{kays_hody_jachowski_parsons_2021, title={Empirical evaluation of the spatial scale and detection process of camera trap surveys}, volume={9}, ISSN={["2051-3933"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-021-00277-3}, DOI={10.1186/s40462-021-00277-3}, abstractNote={Abstract Background Camera traps present a valuable tool for monitoring animals but detect species imperfectly. Occupancy models are frequently used to address this, but it is unclear what spatial scale the data represent. Although individual cameras monitor animal activity within a small target window in front of the device, many practitioners use these data to infer animal presence over larger, vaguely-defined areas. Animal movement is generally presumed to link these scales, but fine-scale heterogeneity in animal space use could disrupt this relationship. Methods We deployed cameras at 10 m intervals across a 0.6 ha forest plot to create an unprecedentedly dense sensor array that allows us to compare animal detections at these two scales. Using time-stamped camera detections we reconstructed fine-scale movement paths of four mammal species and characterized (a) how well animal use of a single camera represented use of the surrounding plot, (b) how well cameras detected animals, and (c) how these processes affected overall detection probability, p. We used these observations to parameterize simulations that test the performance of occupancy models in realistic scenarios. Results We document two important aspects of animal movement and how it affects sampling with passive detectors. First, animal space use is heterogeneous at the camera-trap scale, and data from a single camera may poorly represent activity in its surroundings. Second, cameras frequently (14–71%) fail to record passing animals. Our simulations show how this heterogeneity can introduce unmodeled variation into detection probability, biasing occupancy estimates for species with low p. Conclusions Occupancy or population estimates with camera traps could be improved by increasing camera reliability to reduce missed detections, adding covariates to model heterogeneity in p, or increasing the area sampled by each camera through different sampling designs or technologies.}, number={1}, journal={MOVEMENT ECOLOGY}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, author={Kays, Roland and Hody, Allison and Jachowski, David S. and Parsons, Arielle W.}, year={2021}, month={Aug} }
 @article{cove_kays_bontrager_bresnan_lasky_frerichs_klann_lee_crockett_crupi_et al._2021, title={SNAPSHOT USA 2019: a coordinated national camera trap survey of the United States}, volume={102}, ISSN={["1939-9170"]}, DOI={10.1002/ecy.3353}, abstractNote={With the accelerating pace of global change, it is imperative that we obtain rapid inventories of the status and distribution of wildlife for ecological inferences and conservation planning. To address this challenge, we launched the SNAPSHOT USA project, a collaborative survey of terrestrial wildlife populations using camera traps across the United States. For our first annual survey, we compiled data across all 50 states during a 14-week period (17 August–24 November of 2019). We sampled wildlife at 1,509 camera trap sites from 110 camera trap arrays covering 12 different ecoregions across four development zones. This effort resulted in 166,036 unique detections of 83 species of mammals and 17 species of birds. All images were processed through the Smithsonian’s eMammal camera trap data repository and included an expert review phase to ensure taxonomic accuracy of data, resulting in each picture being reviewed at least twice. The results represent a timely and standardized camera trap survey of the United States. All of the 2019 survey data are made available herein. We are currently repeating surveys in fall 2020, opening up the opportunity to other institutions and cooperators to expand coverage of all the urban–wild gradients and ecophysiographic regions of the country. Future data will be available as the database is updated at eMammal.si.edu/snapshot-usa, as will future data paper submissions. These data will be useful for local and macroecological research including the examination of community assembly, effects of environmental and anthropogenic landscape variables, effects of fragmentation and extinction debt dynamics, as well as species-specific population dynamics and conservation action plans. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this paper when using the data for publication.}, number={6}, journal={ECOLOGY}, author={Cove, Michael V. and Kays, Roland and Bontrager, Helen and Bresnan, Claire and Lasky, Monica and Frerichs, Taylor and Klann, Renee and Lee, Thomas E., Jr. and Crockett, Seth C. and Crupi, Anthony P. and et al.}, year={2021}, month={Jun} }
 @article{hansen_parsons_kays_millspaugh_2020, title={Does Use of Backyard Resources Explain the Abundance of Urban Wildlife?}, volume={8}, ISSN={["2296-701X"]}, DOI={10.3389/fevo.2020.570771}, abstractNote={While urbanization is clearly contributing to biodiversity loss, certain wildlife assemblages can paradoxically be diverse and abundant in moderately developed areas. One hypothesis to explain this phenomenon is that abundant anthropogenic resources for wildlife (i.e. food and shelter) outweigh the costs associated with urbanization. To test this hypothesis, we used camera traps to measure mammal species richness, diversity, and relative abundance (i.e., detection rate) in 58 residential yards in Raleigh, North Carolina, focusing on six types of features that might be used as resources: animal feeding, vegetable gardens, compost piles, chicken coops, brushpiles, and water sources. We also placed cameras at random control sites within each yard and sampled forests in nearby suburban and rural areas for comparison. We fit mixed-effects Poisson models to determine whether yard features, yard-scale characteristics, or landscape-scale landcover predicted mammal relative abundance for eight species. We also tested if the relative abundance of native canid predators in yards was related to the number of prey (rodents and lagomorphs). Species richness, diversity, and relative abundance of most mammal species was higher in yards and suburban forests than in rural forests. Within a yard, purposeful feeding had the strongest effect on animal relative abundance, with eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) being the most common (32.3 squirrels/day at feeders; 0.55 at control sites; 0.29 in suburban forests; and 0.10 in rural forests). We observed species using (e.g., eating) most yard features, although canids were less likely than other taxa to use resources in yards. The presence of a yard feature did not strongly affect the abundance of species at the control site in the yard, suggesting the influence of these features was highly localized. The relative abundance of predators had a positive association with prey relative abundance, and predators were less common in yards with fences. These results demonstrate that there is high use of anthropogenic resources, especially supplemental feeding by urban wildlife, and this increase in prey species may then attract predators, which supports the hypothesis that use of supplemental food resources explains the abundance of urban wildlife.}, journal={FRONTIERS IN ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION}, author={Hansen, Christopher P. and Parsons, Arielle W. and Kays, Roland and Millspaugh, Joshua J.}, year={2020}, month={Oct} }
 @article{parsons_niedermeyer_gould_brown_strules_parsons_bernardo mesa‐cruz_kelly_hooker_chamberlain_et al._2020, title={Listeria monocytogenes
            at the human–wildlife interface: black bears (
            Ursus americanus
            ) as potential vehicles for
            Listeria}, volume={13}, ISBN={1751-7915}, ISSN={1751-7915 1751-7915}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13509}, DOI={10.1111/1751-7915.13509}, abstractNote={Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of the foodborne illness listeriosis, which can result in severe symptoms and death in susceptible humans and other animals. L. monocytogenes is ubiquitous in the environment and isolates from food and food processing, and clinical sources have been extensively characterized. However, limited information is available on L. monocytogenes from wildlife, especially from urban or suburban settings. As urban and suburban areas are expanding worldwide, humans are increasingly encroaching into wildlife habitats, enhancing the frequency of human-wildlife contacts and associated pathogen transfer events. We investigated the prevalence and characteristics of L. monocytogenes in 231 wild black bear capture events between 2014 and 2017 in urban and suburban sites in North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia and United States, with samples derived from 183 different bears. Of the 231 captures, 105 (45%) yielded L. monocytogenes either alone or together with other Listeria. Analysis of 501 samples, primarily faeces, rectal and nasal swabs for Listeria spp., yielded 777 isolates, of which 537 (70%) were L. monocytogenes. Most L. monocytogenes isolates exhibited serotypes commonly associated with human disease: serotype 1/2a or 3a (57%), followed by the serotype 4b complex (33%). Interestingly, approximately 50% of the serotype 4b isolates had the IVb-v1 profile, associated with emerging clones of L. monocytogenes. Thus, black bears may serve as novel vehicles for L. monocytogenes, including potentially emerging clones. Our results have significant public health implications as they suggest that the ursine host may preferentially select for L. monocytogenes of clinically relevant lineages over the diverse listerial populations in the environment. These findings also help to elucidate the ecology of L. monocytogenes and highlight the public health significance of the human-wildlife interface.}, number={3}, journal={Microbial Biotechnology}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Parsons, Cameron and Niedermeyer, Jeff and Gould, Nicholas and Brown, Phillip and Strules, Jennifer and Parsons, Arielle W. and Bernardo Mesa‐Cruz, J. and Kelly, Marcella J. and Hooker, Michael J. and Chamberlain, Michael J. and et al.}, editor={Brown, PhillipEditor}, year={2020}, month={May}, pages={706–721} }
 @article{kays_dunn_parsons_mcdonald_perkins_powers_shell_mcdonald_cole_kikillus_et al._2020, title={The small home ranges and large local ecological impacts of pet cats}, volume={23}, ISSN={1367-9430 1469-1795}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/acv.12563}, DOI={10.1111/acv.12563}, abstractNote={Domestic cats (Felis catus) are a conservation concern because they kill billions of native prey each year, but without spatial context the ecological importance of pets as predators remains uncertain. We worked with citizen scientists to track 925 pet cats from six countries, finding remarkably small home ranges (3.6 ± 5.6 ha). Only three cats ranged > 1 km2 and we found no relationship between home range size and the presence of larger native predators (i.e. coyotes, Canis latrans). Most (75%) cats used primarily (90%) disturbed habitats. Owners reported that their pets killed an average of 3.5 prey items/month, leading to an estimated ecological impact per cat of 14.2-38.9 prey ha−1 yr−1. This is similar or higher than the per-animal ecological impact of wild carnivores but the effect is amplified by the high density of cats in neighborhoods. As a result, pet cats around the world have an ecological impact greater than native predators but concentrated within ~100 m of their homes.}, number={5}, journal={Animal Conservation}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Kays, R. and Dunn, R. R. and Parsons, A. W. and Mcdonald, B. and Perkins, T. and Powers, S. A. and Shell, L. and McDonald, J. L. and Cole, H. and Kikillus, H. and et al.}, year={2020}, month={Mar}, pages={516–523} }
 @article{parsons_rota_forrester_baker‐whatton_mcshea_schuttler_millspaugh_kays_2019, title={Urbanization focuses carnivore activity in remaining natural habitats, increasing species interactions}, volume={56}, ISSN={0021-8901 1365-2664}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13385}, DOI={10.1111/1365-2664.13385}, abstractNote={Interspecific interactions can provoke temporal and spatial avoidance, ultimately affecting population densities and spatial distribution patterns. The ability (or inability) of species to coexist has consequences for diversity and ultimately ecosystem stability. Urbanization is predicted to change species interactions but its relative impact is not well known. Urbanization gradients offer the opportunity to evaluate the effect of humans on species interactions by comparing community dynamics across levels of disturbance. We used camera traps deployed by citizen scientists to survey mammals along urbanization gradients of two cities (Washington, DC and Raleigh, NC, USA). We used a multispecies occupancy model with four competing predator species to test whether forest fragmentation, interspecific interactions, humans or prey had the greatest influence on carnivore distribution. Our study produced 6,413 carnivore detections from 1,260 sites in two cities, sampling both private and public lands. All species used all levels of the urbanization gradient to a similar extent, but co-occurrence of urban-adapted foxes with less urban-adapted bobcats and coyotes was dependent on the availability of green space, especially as urbanization increased. This suggests green space allows less urban-adapted species to occupy suburban areas, but focuses their movements through remaining forest patches, leading to more species interactions. Synthesis and applications. Species interactions, forest fragmentation and human-related covariates were important determinants of carnivore occupancy across a gradient of urbanization with the relative importance of forest fragmentation being highest. We found evidence of both positive and negative interactions across the gradient with some dependent on available green space, suggesting that fragmentation leads to higher levels of spatial interaction. Where green space is adequate, there appears to be sufficient opportunity for coexistence between carnivore species in an urban landscape.}, number={8}, journal={Journal of Applied Ecology}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Parsons, Arielle W. and Rota, Christopher T. and Forrester, Tavis and Baker‐Whatton, Megan C. and McShea, William J. and Schuttler, Stephanie G. and Millspaugh, Joshua J. and Kays, Roland}, editor={Wheeler, HelenEditor}, year={2019}, month={Apr}, pages={1894–1904} }
 @article{rodrigues_kays_parsons_versiani_paolino_pasqualotto_krepschi_chiarello_2017, title={Managed forest as habitat for gray brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira) in agricultural landscapes of southeastern Brazil}, volume={98}, ISSN={0022-2372 1545-1542}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyx099}, DOI={10.1093/jmammal/gyx099}, number={5}, journal={Journal of Mammalogy}, publisher={Oxford University Press (OUP)}, author={Rodrigues, Thiago Ferreira and Kays, Roland and Parsons, Arielle and Versiani, Natalia Fraguas and Paolino, Roberta Montanheiro and Pasqualotto, Nielson and Krepschi, Victor Gasperotto and Chiarello, Adriano Garcia}, year={2017}, month={Aug}, pages={1301–1309} }
 @article{stocking_simons_parsons_o'connell_2017, title={Managing Native Predators: Evidence from a Partial Removal of Raccoons (Procyon lotor) on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, USA}, volume={40}, ISSN={1524-4695}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1675/063.040.sp103}, DOI={10.1675/063.040.sp103}, abstractNote={Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are important predators of ground-nesting species in coastal systems. They have been identified as a primary cause of nest failure for the American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) throughout its range. Concerns over the long-term effects of raccoon predation and increased nest success following a hurricane inspired a mark-resight study of the raccoon population on a barrier island off North Carolina, USA. Approximately half of the raccoons were experimentally removed in 2008. Nests (n = 700) were monitored on two adjacent barrier islands during 2004–2013. Daily nest survival estimates were highest for 2004 (0.974 ± 0.005) and lowest for 2007 and 2008 (0.925 ± 0.009 and 0.925 ± 0.010, respectively). The only model in our candidate set that received any support included island and time of season, along with a diminishing effect of the hurricane and a constant, 5-year effect of the raccoon removal. For both hurricane and raccoon removal, however, the support for island-specific effects was weak (β = -0.204 ± 0.116 and 0.146 ± 0.349, respectively). We conclude that either the raccoon reduction was inadequate, or factors other than predation cause more variation in nest success than previously recognized. A multi-faceted approach to management aimed at reducing nest losses to storm overwash, predation, and human disturbance is likely to yield the largest population level benefits.}, number={sp1}, journal={Waterbirds}, publisher={Waterbird Society}, author={Stocking, J.J. and Simons, T.R. and Parsons, A.W. and O'Connell, A.F.}, year={2017}, month={Feb}, pages={10–18} }
 @article{martin_kendall_runge_simons_waldstein_schulte_converse_smith_pinion_rikard_et al._2010, title={Optimal control of native predators}, volume={143}, ISSN={["1873-2917"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.biocon.2010.04.023}, abstractNote={We apply decision theory in a structured decision-making framework to evaluate how control of raccoons (Procyon lotor), a native predator, can promote the conservation of a declining population of American Oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus) on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Our management objective was to maintain Oystercatcher productivity above a level deemed necessary for population recovery while minimizing raccoon removal. We evaluated several scenarios including no raccoon removal, and applied an adaptive optimization algorithm to account for parameter uncertainty. We show how adaptive optimization can be used to account for uncertainties about how raccoon control may affect Oystercatcher productivity. Adaptive management can reduce this type of uncertainty and is particularly well suited for addressing controversial management issues such as native predator control. The case study also offers several insights that may be relevant to the optimal control of other native predators. First, we found that stage-specific removal policies (e.g., yearling versus adult raccoon removals) were most efficient if the reproductive values among stage classes were very different. Second, we found that the optimal control of raccoons would result in higher Oystercatcher productivity than the minimum levels recommended for this species. Third, we found that removing more raccoons initially minimized the total number of removals necessary to meet long term management objectives. Finally, if for logistical reasons managers cannot sustain a removal program by removing a minimum number of raccoons annually, managers may run the risk of creating an ecological trap for Oystercatchers.}, number={7}, journal={BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION}, author={Martin, Julien and Kendall, William L. and Runge, Michael C. and Simons, Theodore R. and Waldstein, Arielle H. and Schulte, Shiloh A. and Converse, Sarah. J. and Smith, Graham W. and Pinion, Timothy and Rikard, Michael and et al.}, year={2010}, month={Jul}, pages={1751–1758} }