@article{longo_isgren_clark_2021, title={Nutrient Overloading in the Chesapeake Bay Structural Conditions in Poultry Production and the Socioecological Drivers of Marine Pollution}, volume={7}, ISSN={["2374-538X"]}, DOI={10.1525/sod.2020.0032}, abstractNote={We examine socioecological drivers of nutrient overloading and eutrophication in the Chesapeake Bay associated with poultry production on the Delmarva Peninsula. We use a social metabolic analysis—rooted in a political-economy perspective—that highlights the interchange of matter and energy and the inextricable links within and between social and ecological systems, illuminating the social structural processes contributing to ecological changes. The concentration and consolidation of poultry production through integration, which involves contract farming, and geographic concentration of operations, have been associated with intensified and increased scale of chicken (broiler) production. These processes have had significant effects on waste accumulation, maintenance, and disposal, and this industry has become one of the major contributors of nutrient overloading in the Chesapeake Bay. This study, therefore, specifies social processes that are driving environmental changes between land and sea.}, number={4}, journal={SOCIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT}, author={Longo, Stefano B. and Isgren, Ellinor and Clark, Brett}, year={2021}, pages={416–440} }
 @article{longo_clark_york_jorgenson_2019, title={Aquaculture and the displacement of fisheries captures}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1523-1739"]}, DOI={10.1111/cobi.13295}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={4}, journal={CONSERVATION BIOLOGY}, author={Longo, Stefano B. and Clark, Brett and York, Richard and Jorgenson, Andrew K.}, year={2019}, month={Aug}, pages={832–841} }
 @book{longo_clausen_clark_2015, title={The tragedy of the commodity: Oceans, fisheries, and aquaculture}, ISBN={9780813565781}, publisher={New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press}, author={Longo, S. B. and Clausen, R. and Clark, B}, year={2015} }
 @book{hornborg_clark_hermele_2012, title={Ecology and power: struggles over land and material resources in the past, present and future}, publisher={New York: Routledge}, year={2012} }
 @article{longo_clark_2012, title={The Commodification of Bluefin Tuna: The Historical Transformation of the Mediterranean Fishery}, volume={12}, ISSN={["1471-0366"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1471-0366.2011.00348.x}, abstractNote={Employing a political–economic approach, we examine the Atlantic bluefin tuna fisheries in the Mediterranean. In doing so, we highlight historical transformations in fishing operations given the commodification of bluefin tuna and the growth imperative of capitalism. Fieldwork in Sicily and Sardinia, in‐depth interviews, and primary and secondary data inform this analysis. Within the global agro‐food system, traditional trap fisheries that operated for centuries have diminished. Industrialized fishing and tuna‐ranching operations – that make use of high‐tech, capital‐intensive methods – have reorganized production, including the labour process, the capture of fish and the lifecycles of bluefin tuna. In an attempt to profit from the exploitation of the most prized fish in the world, capitalist fishing operations are harvesting bluefin tuna at a rate that exceeds the reproductive capabilities of the existing stock, which has had negative consequences for the traditional trap fishery and may lead to the collapse of this fishery. Modern capitalist social relations have destabilized an ecological system that has long been coupled with human systems within a few decades, with extensive socio‐ecological consequences. Aquaculture, as a proposed solution, is a technological fix, which cannot resolve fundamental ecological contradictions.}, number={2-3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AGRARIAN CHANGE}, author={Longo, Stefano B. and Clark, Brett}, year={2012}, pages={204–226} }
 @article{jorgenson_clark_giedraitis_2012, title={The Temporal (In)Stability of the Carbon Dioxide Emissions/Economic Development Relationship in Central and Eastern European Nations}, volume={25}, ISSN={["0894-1920"]}, DOI={10.1080/08941920.2012.656186}, abstractNote={Two sociological theories are engaged to assess the temporal (in)stability of the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in Central and Eastern European (CEE) nations. Ecological modernization theory argues that while economic development harms the environment, the magnitude of the harmful link is likely to decrease through time. Treadmill of production theory posits that the association between environmental harms and development will remain constant or possibly increase in magnitude through time. To evaluate these competing propositions, interactions between economic development and time are used in analyses of three measures of CO2 emissions for 13 CEE nations during the 1992 to 2005 period. The results indicate that the magnitude of development's effect on all three outcomes increased through time, which supports the propositions of treadmill of production theory, while also suggesting that economic development in CEE nations became progressively less sustainable in the initial post-Soviet era.}, number={11}, journal={SOCIETY & NATURAL RESOURCES}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Clark, Brett and Giedraitis, Vincentas R.}, year={2012}, pages={1182–1192} }
 @article{jorgenson_clark_2011, title={Societies consuming nature. A panel study of the ecological footprints of nations, 1960-2003}, volume={40}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.09.004}, abstractNote={Sociology is poised to greatly enhance our collective understanding of the various sustainability challenges facing the world today. To contribute to this endeavor, the authors conduct panel analyses of the per capita ecological footprints of nations to evaluate multiple theoretical traditions within environmental sociology and its sister approaches. Findings indicate that the consumption-based environmental impacts of nations are tied to economic development, urban population, militarization, and the structure of international trade. Ecological conditions in the context of climate and biogeography also prove to partially shape the environmental harms of human activities. Ultimately, this research suggests that political-economic factors, ecological milieu, and structural associations between nations all influence society/nature relationships. Considering the globally unsustainable levels of resource consumption and concomitant increases in pollution for a growing number of nations throughout the world, the authors contend that theoretically inclusive and methodologically rigorous investigations on such topics should be more central to the discipline.}, number={1}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Clark, Brett}, year={2011}, month={Jan}, pages={226–244} }
 @article{york_clark_2011, title={Stephen Jay Gould's Critique of Progress}, volume={62}, ISSN={["0027-0520"]}, DOI={10.14452/mr-062-09-2011-02_2}, abstractNote={A question of central importance in the interpretation of patterns of evolution is whether history had to turn out the way it did. From before Charles Darwin’s time up to the present it has been commonly assumed that history, both human history and the history of life in general, unfolded in a somewhat deterministic manner, that the present was inevitable, either ordained in Heaven or, in the scientific view, mechanically produced by deterministic natural laws. This view contrasts with that of the historian: that the quirks, chance events, and particularities of each moment make history, and that the world could have been other than it is.… The renowned paleontologist and evolutionary theorist Stephen Jay Gould.…developed a sophisticated and nuanced position that recognized both the importance of general laws and the role of contingency.… If contingency played little part in how history turned out, if the present was inevitable, then it makes little sense to challenge the status quo. However, if contingency dominates history, the future is open, and the world can be another way, as radicals of all varieties have long believed. This article can also be found at the Monthly Review website , where most recent articles are published in full. Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={9}, journal={MONTHLY REVIEW-AN INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST MAGAZINE}, author={York, Richard and Clark, Brett}, year={2011}, month={Feb}, pages={19–36} }
 @article{jorgenson_clark_2010, title={Assessing the temporal stability of the population/environment relationship in comparative perspective: a cross-national panel study of carbon dioxide emissions, 1960-2005}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1573-7810"]}, DOI={10.1007/s11111-010-0117-x}, number={1}, journal={POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Clark, Brett}, year={2010}, month={Sep}, pages={27–41} }
 @misc{foster_clark_york_2010, title={Capitalism and the curse of energy efficiency the return of the Jevons paradox}, volume={62}, DOI={10.14452/mr-062-06-2010-10_1}, abstractNote={The curse of energy efficiency, better known as the Jevons Paradox—the idea that increased energy (and material-resource) efficiency leads not to conservation but increased use—was first raised by William Stanley Jevons in the nineteenth century. Although forgotten for most of the twentieth century, the Jevons Paradox has been rediscovered in recent decades and stands squarely at the center of today’s environmental disputeThis article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={6}, journal={Monthly Review (New York, N.Y. : 1949)}, author={Foster, J. B. and Clark, B. and York, R.}, year={2010}, pages={1–12} }
 @article{jorgenson_rice_clark_2010, title={Cities, Slums, and Energy Consumption in Less Developed Countries, 1990 to 2005}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1552-7417"]}, DOI={10.1177/1086026610368376}, abstractNote={ Theories in urban political economy and environmental sociology are engaged to assess the extent to which energy consumption in less developed countries is affected by different urban characteristics. Results of first-difference panel model estimates for a sample of less developed countries yield two noteworthy findings. From 1990 to 2005, growth in energy consumption was positively associated with growth in overall urban population and negatively associated with growth in the percentage of a population residing in urban slum conditions. The two divergent effects hold, net of multiple human ecological and political-economic controls. The authors conclude by highlighting the theoretical implications of the findings and the need for more nuanced approaches in future research on such topics. }, number={2}, journal={ORGANIZATION & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Rice, James and Clark, Brett}, year={2010}, month={Jun}, pages={189–204} }
 @misc{york_clark_2010, title={Critical Materialism: Science, Technology, and Environmental Sustainability}, volume={80}, ISSN={["1475-682X"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1475-682x.2010.00343.x}, abstractNote={There are widely divergent views on how science and technology are connected to environmental problems. A view commonly held among natural scientists and policy makers is that environmental problems are primarily technical problems that can be solved via the development and implementation of technological innovations. This technologically optimistic view tends to ignore power relationships in society and the political-economic order that drives environmental degradation. An opposed view, common among postmodernist and poststructuralist scholars, is that the emergence of the scientific worldview is one of the fundamental causes of human oppression. This postmodernist view rejects scientific epistemology and often is associated with an anti-realist stance, which ultimately serves to deny the reality of environmental problems, thus (unintentionally) abetting right-wing efforts to scuttle environmental protection. We argue that both the technologically optimistic and the postmodernist views are misguided, and both undermine our ability to address environmental crises. We advocate the adoption of a critical materialist stance, which recognizes the importance of natural science for helping us to understand the world while also recognizing the social embeddedness of the scientific establishment and the need to challenge the manipulation of science by the elite.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY}, author={York, Richard and Clark, Brett}, year={2010}, month={Aug}, pages={475–499} }
 @article{jorgenson_clark_kentor_2010, title={Militarization and the Environment: A Panel Study of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and the Ecological Footprints of Nations, 1970-2000}, volume={10}, ISSN={["1536-0091"]}, DOI={10.1162/glep.2010.10.1.7}, abstractNote={ The authors situate treadmill of destruction theory in a comparative international perspective to assess the environmental impacts of national militaries. Results of cross-national panel models indicate that high-tech militarization in the form of expenditures per soldier contribute to the scale and intensity of carbon dioxide emissions as well as the per capita ecological footprints of nations. Likewise, all three of these environmental outcomes are positively associated with military participation in the context of the number of soldiers relative to the size of domestic populations. Overall, the findings support the proposed theorization and highlight the need for social scientists to consider the environmental and ecological consequences of nations' militaries, regardless of whether or not they are engaged in conflicts. }, number={1}, journal={GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Clark, Brett and Kentor, Jeffrey}, year={2010}, month={Feb}, pages={7-+} }
 @article{clark_2010, title={Nature, Social Relations and Human Needs: Essays in Honour of Ted Benton}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1086-0266"]}, DOI={10.1177/1086026610392939}, number={4}, journal={ORGANIZATION & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Clark, Brett}, year={2010}, month={Dec}, pages={485–487} }
 @misc{york_clark_foster_2009, title={Capitalism in Wonderland}, volume={61}, DOI={10.14452/mr-061-01-2009-05_1}, abstractNote={In a recent essay, "Economics Needs a Scientific Revolution," in one of the leading scientific journals, Nature, physicist Jean-Philippe Bouchaud, a researcher for an investment management company, asked rhetorically, "What is the flagship achievement of economics?" Bouchaud's answer: "Only its recurrent inability to predict and avert crises."1 Although his discussion is focused on the current worldwide financial crisis, his comment applies equally well to mainstream economic approaches to the environment — where, for example, ancient forests are seen as non-performing assets to be liquidated, and clean air and water are luxury goods for the affluent to purchase at their discretion. The field of economics in the United States has long been dominated by thinkers who unquestioningly accept the capitalist status quo and, accordingly, value the natural world only in terms of how much short-term profit can be generated by its exploitation. As a result, the inability of received economics to cope with or even perceive the global ecological crisis is alarming in its scope and implications.This article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={1}, journal={Monthly Review (New York, N.Y. : 1949)}, author={York, R. and Clark, B. and Foster, J. B.}, year={2009}, pages={1–18} }
 @article{clark_york_foster_2009, title={Darwin's Worms and the Skin of the Earth: An Introduction to Charles Darwin's The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms, With Observations on Their Habits (Selections)}, volume={22}, ISSN={["1552-7417"]}, DOI={10.1177/1086026609344322}, abstractNote={Charles Darwin’s discovery of the theory of evolution by natural selection is unquestionably one of the most profound scientific achievements in history. Darwin was heavily influenced by the great geologist Charles Lyell, who developed uniformitarianism, the methodological and substantive doctrine that sought to explain all geological formations as the result of the accumulation of small events happening continually over long periods of time. In The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on Their Habits, Darwin—inspired by Lyell’s grand conception—focused on how worms transform the surface of the earth through their constant, everyday activities.They contribute to the formation of soil, turning it over and over, which enhances the circulation of nutrients within ecosystems. All studies of nature are indebted to Darwin for his devotion to illustrating the power of the materialist approach and for illuminating how the world works through its natural processes, including the invisible labor of worms.}, number={3}, journal={ORGANIZATION & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Clark, Brett and York, Richard and Foster, John Bellamy}, year={2009}, month={Sep}, pages={338–350} }
 @article{clark_foster_2009, title={Ecological Imperialism and the Global Metabolic Rift}, volume={50}, ISSN={["0020-7152"]}, DOI={10.1177/0020715209105144}, abstractNote={Transfers in economic values are shadowed in complex ways by real material-ecological flows that transform ecological relations between city and country, and between the core and periphery. Directing material flows is a vital part of intercapitalist competition. Ecological imperialism creates asymmetries in the exploitation of the environment, unequal exchange, and a global metabolic rift. The 19th-century guano/nitrates trade illustrates the emergence of a global metabolic rift, as guano and nitrates were transferred from Peru and Chile to enrich the soils of Britain and other imperial countries. This global metabolic rift entailed the decline of soil fertility in Britain, importation of Chinese labor to Peru, mass export of natural fertilizer, degradation of the Peruvian/Chilean environment, war over possession of nitrates, and creation of debt-laden economies. It allowed Britain and other imperial countries to maintain an `environmental overdraft' in their own countries, imperialistically drawing on the natural resources of the periphery. The social metabolic order of capitalism is inseparable from such ecological imperialism, which is as basic to the system as the search for profits itself.}, number={3-4}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE SOCIOLOGY}, author={Clark, Brett and Foster, John Bellamy}, year={2009}, pages={311–334} }
 @article{jorgenson_clark_2009, title={Ecologically Unequal Exchange in Comparative Perspective A Brief Introduction}, volume={50}, ISSN={["0020-7152"]}, DOI={10.1177/0020715209105139}, abstractNote={This special issue originated during planning for the 2008 American Sociological Association (ASA) meeting. The Political Economy of the World-System, Environment and Technology, and Marxist Sociology sections cosponsored a series of panels. These three sections of the ASA complement each other on many fronts and offer an impressive array of theory and research that grapples with many of the most pressing issues confronting the world today. It was collectively decided that the first co-editor of this special collection organize a panel that focused on ecologically unequal exchange, an emerging perspective that is logically situated at the nexus of the three sections and their complementary orientations. Works within this emerging perspective consider how the structure of the world-economy influences unequal material-ecological exchanges, often per petuating global inequalities and uneven environmental impacts, most of which disproportionately harm the environment and well-being of populations in lesser-developed countries. The resulting panel at the national meeting was very successful, stimulating much discussion and interest in building upon the engagement. The panelists and their presentations were methodologically diverse and theoretically rich, but with a common topical thread that highlighted the intersections of the three sections. Hence, this special issue consists of articles by the panelists at the meeting as well as contributions by other social scientists who significantly contribute to the study of ecologically unequal exchange in comparative perspective. The first two articles theoretically situate ecologically unequal exchange, establishing links with various traditions, articulating the goals of studies in this area, revealing the important social relationships to investigate, identifying the social forces of environmental degradation, and raising key considerations International Journal of Comparative Sociology © The Author(s), 2009. Reprints and permissions: http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav http://cos.sagepub.com Vol 50(3–4): 211–214 DOI: 10.1177/0020715209105139}, number={3-4}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE SOCIOLOGY}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Clark, Brett}, year={2009}, pages={211–214} }
 @misc{jorgenson_clark_2009, title={The Economy, Military, and Ecologically Unequal Exchange Relationships in Comparative Perspective: A Panel Study of the Ecological Footprints of Nations, 1975-2000}, volume={56}, ISSN={["1533-8533"]}, DOI={10.1525/sp.2009.56.4.621}, abstractNote={The authors employ multiple theories within a political economy framework to examine the structural predictors of the per capita ecological footprints of nations. Engaged theories include ecological modernization, treadmill of production, treadmill of destruction, and ecologically unequal exchange. Results of cross-national panel regression models indicate that the treadmill of production in the context of economic development increases per capita footprints, which contradicts general claims of ecological modernization theory. Similarly, the treadmill of destruction in the mode of military expenditures per soldier positively affects per capita footprints. Those with relatively higher levels of exports sent to economically developed and militarily powerful nations experience suppressed consumption levels, and these effects are especially pronounced and increasingly so for less-developed countries, many of which consume resources well below globally sustainable thresholds. The latter sets of findings support key elements of ecologically unequal exchange theory. Ultimately, this research suggests that a political economy framework that considers domestic attributes and structural relationships in particular contexts is quite useful for understanding the consumption-based environmental harms of nations.}, number={4}, journal={SOCIAL PROBLEMS}, author={Jorgenson, Andrew K. and Clark, Brett}, year={2009}, month={Nov}, pages={621–646} }
 @article{foster_clark_york_2009, title={The Midas Effect: A Critique of Climate Change Economics}, volume={40}, ISSN={["0012-155X"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-7660.2009.01613.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT}, number={6}, journal={DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE}, author={Foster, John Bellamy and Clark, Brett and York, Richard}, year={2009}, month={Nov}, pages={1085–1097} }
 @article{foster_clark_2009, title={The paradox of wealth: Capitalism and ecological destruction}, volume={61}, DOI={10.14452/mr-061-06-2009-10_1}, abstractNote={Today orthodox economics is reputedly being harnessed to an entirely new end: saving the planet from the ecological destruction wrought by capitalist expansion. It promises to accomplish this through the further expansion of capitalism itself, cleared of its excesses and excrescences. A growing army of self-styled "sustainable developers" argues that there is no contradiction between the unlimited accumulation of capital — the credo of economic liberalism from Adam Smith to the present — and the preservation of the earth. The system can continue to expand by creating a new "sustainable capitalism," bringing the efficiency of the market to bear on nature and its reproduction. In reality, these visions amount to little more than a renewed strategy for profiting on planetary destruction.This article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={6}, journal={Monthly Review (New York, N.Y. : 1949)}, author={Foster, J. B. and Clark, B.}, year={2009}, pages={1–18} }
 @article{foster_clark_york_2008, title={Ecology: The moment of truth - An introduction}, volume={60}, DOI={10.14452/mr-060-03-2008-07_1}, abstractNote={It is impossible to exaggerate the environmental problem facing humanity in the twenty-first century. Nearly fifteen years ago one of us observed: "We have only four decades left in which to gain control over our major environmental problems if we are to avoid irreversible ecological decline."1 Today, with a quarter-century still remaining in this projected time line, it appears to have been too optimistic. Available evidence now strongly suggests that under a regime of business as usual we could be facing an irrevocable "tipping point" with respect to climate change within a mere decade.2 Other crises such as species extinction (percentages of bird, mammal, and fish species "vulnerable or in immediate danger of extinction" are "now measured in double digits");3 the rapid depletion of the oceans' bounty; desertification; deforestation; air pollution; water shortages/pollution; soil degradation; the imminent peaking of world oil production (creating new geopolitical tensions); and a chronic world food crisis—all point to the fact that the planet as we know it and its ecosystems are stretched to the breaking point. The moment of truth for the earth and human civilization has arrivedThis article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={3}, journal={Monthly Review (New York, N.Y. : 1949)}, author={Foster, J. B. and Clark, B. and York, R.}, year={2008}, pages={1–11} }
 @article{foster_clark_york_2008, title={Marx's critique of heaven and critique of earth}, volume={60}, ISSN={["0027-0520"]}, DOI={10.14452/mr-060-05-2008-09_3}, abstractNote={In recent years the intelligent design movement, or creationism in a more subtle guise, has expanded the attack on the teaching of evolution in U.S. public schools, while promoting an ambitious "Wedge strategy" aimed at transforming both science and culture throughout society. As explained in our book Critique of Intelligent Design: Materialism versus Creationism from Antiquity to the Present (Monthly Review Press, 2008), this has reignited a 2,500-year debate between materialism and creationism, science and design. The argument from design (the attempt to discern evidence of design in nature, thereby the existence of a Designer) can be dated back to Socrates in the fifth century BCE. While the opposing materialist view (that the world is explained in terms of itself, by reference to material conditions, natural laws, and contingent, emergent phenomena, and not by the invocation of the supernatural) to which Socrates was responding also dates back to the fifth century BCE in the writings of the atomists Leucippus and Democritus. The latter perspective was developed philosophically into a full-fledged critique of design by Epicurus in the third century BCE, which later influenced the scientific revolution of the seventeenth centuryThis article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={5}, journal={MONTHLY REVIEW-AN INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST MAGAZINE}, author={Foster, John Bellamy and Clark, Brett and York, Richard}, year={2008}, month={Oct}, pages={22–42} }
 @article{foster_clark_2008, title={Rachel Carson's ecological critique}, volume={59}, DOI={10.14452/mr-059-09-2008-02_1}, abstractNote={Rachel Carson was born just over 100 years ago in 1907. Her most famous book Silent Spring, published in 1962, is often seen as marking the birth of the modern environmental movement. Although an immense amount has been written about Carson and her work, the fact that she was objectively a "woman of the left" has often been downplayed. Today the rapidly accelerating planetary ecological crisis, which she more than anyone else alerted us to, calls for an exploration of the full critical nature of her thought and its relation to the larger revolt within science with which she was associated.This article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={9}, journal={Monthly Review (New York, N.Y. : 1949)}, author={Foster, J. B. and Clark, B.}, year={2008}, pages={1–17} }
 @article{clark_york_2008, title={Rifts and Shifts Getting to the Root of Environmental Crises}, volume={60}, ISSN={["0027-0520"]}, DOI={10.14452/mr-060-06-2008-10_2}, abstractNote={Humans depend on functioning ecosystems to sustain themselves, and their actions affect those same ecosystems. As a result, there is a necessary "metabolic interaction" between humans and the earth, which influences both natural and social history. Increasingly, the state of nature is being defined by the operations of the capitalist system, as anthropogenic forces are altering the global environment on a scale that is unprecedented. The global climate is rapidly changing due to the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. No area of the world's ocean is unaffected by human influence, as the accumulation of carbon, fertilizer runoff, and overfishing undermine biodiversity and the natural services that it provides. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment documents how over two-thirds of the world's ecosystems are overexploited and polluted. Environmental problems are increasingly interrelated. James Hansen, the leading climatologist in the United States, warns that we are dangerously close to pushing the planet past its tipping point, setting off cascading environmental problems that will radically alter the conditions of naturei»?This article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={6}, journal={MONTHLY REVIEW-AN INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST MAGAZINE}, author={Clark, Brett and York, Richard}, year={2008}, month={Nov}, pages={13–24} }
 @article{clark_clausen_2008, title={The oceanic crisis - Capitalism and the degradation of marine ecosystems}, volume={60}, ISSN={["0027-0520"]}, DOI={10.14452/mr-060-03-2008-07_6}, abstractNote={The world ocean covers approximately 70 percent of the earth. It has been an integral part of human history, providing food and ecological services. Yet conservation efforts and concerns with environmental degradation have mostly focused on terrestrial issues. Marine scientists and oceanographers have recently made remarkable discoveries in regard to the intricacies of marine food webs and the richness of oceanic biodiversity. However, the excitement over these discoveries is dampened due to an awareness of the rapidly accelerating threat to the biological integrity of marine ecosystemsThis article can also be found at the Monthly Review website, where most recent articles are published in full.Click here to purchase a PDF version of this article at the Monthly Review website.}, number={3}, journal={MONTHLY REVIEW-AN INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST MAGAZINE}, author={Clark, Brett and Clausen, Rebecca}, year={2008}, pages={91–111} }
 @misc{foster_clark_2008, title={The sociology of ecology - Ecological organicism versus ecosystem ecology in the social construction of ecological science, 1926-1935}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1552-7417"]}, DOI={10.1177/1086026608321632}, abstractNote={Environmental sociology has been divided in recent years by a debate between realists and constructionists centering on the knowledge claims of ecological science. Following a consideration of this debate and its relation to both environmental sociology and the “sociology of ecology,” a “realist constructionism” is advanced, taking as its concrete case the conflict in the 1920s and 1930s between Jan Christian Smuts's organicist ecology and Arthur Tansley's ecosystem ecology. A central analytical issue (derived from Marx and Engels) is the “double transfer” of ideas from society to nature and back again and how this was manifested in the early 20th-century ecology in the form of a justification for ecological racism/apartheid.}, number={3}, journal={ORGANIZATION & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Foster, John Bellamy and Clark, Brett}, year={2008}, month={Sep}, pages={311–352} }