@article{campbell_daubert_drake_foegeding_2016, title={An ISO-Protein Model Food System for Evaluating Food Texture Effects}, volume={47}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/jtxs.12182}, abstractNote={AbstractPerceptions of food quality, acceptability and satiety are often driven by food texture. It is hypothesized that food texture alters satiety by adjusting eating rate and enjoyment; however, few studies have evaluated wide ranges of food textures with standardized nutritional compositions. The goal of this study was to formulate and characterize a set of isocaloric, macronutrient‐matched model foods with varying textures. Six distinct food textures were produced by varying the extent and type of aggregation of 11% whey protein isolate solutions. Textures were grouped into fluid‐like (fluid, thin and thick semisolids) and solid‐like (three soft solid gels) based on rheological and sensory properties. Increasing sample mechanical stiffness coincided with increasing cohesiveness in fluid‐like textures and decreasing cohesiveness in solid textures; total oral manipulations increased with increasing stiffness. Trends in sensory cohesiveness reflected that solid textures are fractured with the molars while fluid‐like textures are manipulated by tongue and jaw movements. These model foods demonstrated properties in the range of commercial food products. They are applicable to investigating structural mechanisms responsible for texture and satiety. A scheme was developed that outlines structural breakdown and coinciding perception of textural properties during oral processing.Practical ApplicationsUnderstanding the multidisciplinary relationships among food structure, texture, sensory perception, satiety and nutrient availability are fundamental in the formulation of healthy and enjoyable food products. However, the selection of products to evaluate the role of food structure upon texture and health is often difficult due to variations in macronutrients, total calories, and sample volume. This research provides a nutritionally standardized model food system that spans a textural spectrum of fluids, semisolids, and soft solids. The basic model foods presented here can be used to establish fundamental relationships between food structure and physiological outcomes. Additionally, these model foods can easily be reformulated to represent more complex structures (e.g., mixed gels, emulsions) or to evaluate the effects of added flavor or color.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Campbell, Caroline L. and Daubert, Christopher R. and Drake, Maryanne and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2016}, month={Oct}, pages={377–391} }
 @article{joyner_pernell_daubert_2014, title={Beyond surface selection: The impact of different methodologies on tribological measurements}, volume={134}, ISSN={["1873-5770"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.03.003}, abstractNote={Emerging links between food friction and sensory texture have prompted an increase in food tribology studies. Soft tribological surfaces (e.g. elastomers) are used in these studies to mimic conditions in the oral cavity. However, measurement protocols and tribological surfaces vary among food tribological studies. Because the majority of these studies use empirical measurements, it is difficult to quantitatively compare their results. Although the effects of surface hydrophobicity, roughness, and modulus on friction coefficient measurements have been examined, there has been little study of variability due to differences in measurement parameters. Therefore, this study examined the effect of different measurement parameters on friction coefficient magnitude and variation. Tribological data were affected by multiple measurement parameters. A measurement protocol that yielded repeatable measurements with low variation was proposed based on these results. It is suggested that a standard protocol for food tribological measurements be adopted to enable proper data comparison among studies.}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD ENGINEERING}, author={Joyner, Helen S. and Pernell, Chris W. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2014}, month={Aug}, pages={45–58} }
 @article{joyner_pernell_daubert_2014, title={Impact of Formulation and Saliva on Acid Milk Gel Friction Behavior}, volume={79}, ISSN={["1750-3841"]}, DOI={10.1111/1750-3841.12439}, abstractNote={AbstractRheological analysis is commonly used to evaluate mechanical properties in studies of food behavior. However, rheological analysis is often insufficient to describe food texture as evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis. Additionally, traditional rheometry does not account for changes in food behavior as a function of saliva incorporation into the food during mastication. The objectives of this study were to evaluate friction behavior of acid milk gels with and without the addition of saliva, and to determine relationships between frictional behaviors and mechanical and sensory behaviors. Acid milk gels were prepared with 12.5% total solids comprising nonfat dry milk, whey protein isolate, waxy maize starch, and gelatin in different ratios. The addition of starch was found to have significant impact on acid milk gel frictional behavior. Addition of saliva resulted in a change in frictional behavior over the entire sliding speed range measured. Correlations were found between rheological, tribological, and sensory behavior, suggesting that an underlying mechanism may impact both viscosity and friction behavior. Additional study is needed to further explore the links between food structure, rheology, tribology, and sensory texture.Practical ApplicationApplication of tribology in food science allows measurement of friction behavior of foods. Matching both rheological and tribological behavior is important to creating reduced‐fat or reduced‐sugar products with similar mouthfeel to the original product.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Joyner, Helen S. and Pernell, Chris W. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2014}, month={May}, pages={E867–E880} }
 @article{joyner_pernell_daubert_2014, title={Impact of Oil-in-Water Emulsion Composition and Preparation Method on Emulsion Physical Properties and Friction Behaviors}, volume={56}, ISSN={["1573-2711"]}, DOI={10.1007/s11249-014-0393-1}, number={1}, journal={TRIBOLOGY LETTERS}, author={Joyner, Helen S. and Pernell, Chris W. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2014}, month={Oct}, pages={143–160} }
 @article{joyner_pernell_daubert_2014, title={Impact of parameter settings on normal force and gap height during tribological measurements}, volume={137}, ISSN={["1873-5770"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.03.019}, abstractNote={There has been increased interest over the past decade to use soft tribology to mimic conditions in the oral cavity. Tribological measurements in these studies have been performed on a variety of instruments, both commercial and custom-made. While the effects of tribological surface characteristics (e.g. roughness, modulus, hydrophobicity) on tribological measurements have been examined, there has been little study of measurement variability due to differences in tribometer settings. Therefore, this study examined the effect of different tribometer measurement parameters on the magnitude and fluctuation of normal force, gap height, and friction coefficient. The instantaneous values of normal force and gap height, and the extent of fluctuation of those measurements, were affected by multiple instrument parameters. Friction coefficient values were not significantly affected by instrumental parameters; however, fluctuations in normal force and gap height can contribute to data variation, reducing measurement precision and adding confounding factors to data.}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD ENGINEERING}, author={Joyner, Helen S. and Pernell, Chris W. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={51–63} }
 @article{koc_cakir_vinyard_essick_daubert_drake_osborne_foegeding_2014, title={ADAPTATION OF ORAL PROCESSING TO THE FRACTURE PROPERTIES OF SOFT SOLIDS}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/jtxs.12051}, abstractNote={AbstractHardness and rubberiness are distinct textural properties that are associated with extended oral processing times and therefore of interest to designing food structure for specific textural properties. Model food gels were developed with (1) increasing strength/hardness and constant deformability or (2) increasing deformability/rubberiness within a limited range of strength. Gel structures were characterized based on mechanical properties and the muscle activity (electromyography) and mandibular movements (three‐dimensional jaw tracking) required for oral processing. Increased strength or deformability required more chewing cycles and increased muscle activity to breakdown samples for swallowing. In contrast, jaw movement amplitude increased in all directions with increased strength and remained constant or decreased with increased deformability. Specific mechanical properties that were correlated with oral processing parameters changed as chewing progressed, possibly reflecting a change in dominate mechanical properties and sensory perception during oral processing.Practical ApplicationsA fundamental understanding of how food structure determines sensory texture is essential to designing foods that are healthy and desirable to consumers. Oral processing, from first bite through swallowing, is the main physiological element of texture evaluation. Model soft solid foods with increasing strength/hardness or deformability/rubberiness were developed and characterized by mechanical tests and oral processing. Mastication of harder or more deformable structures required different chewing movements in bolus preparation. The specific mechanical properties relating to oral processing may change during the chewing sequence.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Koc, H. and Cakir, E. and Vinyard, C. J. and Essick, G. and Daubert, C. R. and Drake, M. A. and Osborne, J. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2014}, month={Feb}, pages={47–61} }
 @article{melito_daubert_foegeding_2013, title={Relating Large Amplitude Oscillatory Shear and Food Behavior: Correlation of Nonlinear Viscoelastic, Rheological, Sensory and Oral Processing Behavior of Whey Protein Isolate/-Carrageenan Gels}, volume={36}, ISSN={["1745-4530"]}, DOI={10.1111/jfpe.12015}, abstractNote={AbstractCreating desirable food textures begins with a fundamental understanding of texture, which involves measuring mechanical properties of the food product. Large strain mechanical properties have been correlated with sensory and oral processing characteristics; however, most large strain testing in food research involves determination of fracture properties rather than examination of nonlinear viscoelastic behavior. Relationships between nonlinear viscoelastic behavior and food texture were determined by measuring and correlating nonlinear viscoelastic properties of several whey protein isolate/κ‐carrageenan gels to sensory, oral processing and large strain rheological characteristics. Nonlinear viscoelastic properties correlated (R2 > 0.5, P < 0.05) to sensory, oral processing and large strain rheological behaviors. Sensory correlations included aspects evaluated after several chews as well as first bite aspects. Oral processing correlations generally involved jaw movement terms rather than electromyographical data. Understanding the nonlinear viscoelastic properties of food allows a better understanding of food structure and deformation mechanism and how that structure impacts food texture.Practical ApplicationsThis work demonstrates the applicability of large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) testing in food science. The LAOS measurement and analysis method may be applied to foods with a wide range of structure and texture, allowing measurements of nonlinear viscoelastic behavior in materials that cannot be tested under current methodology. In addition, LAOS measurements can indicate structural aspects of the material, and correlations between structure and texture may be made from this information.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING}, author={Melito, H. S. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2013}, month={Aug}, pages={521–534} }
 @article{melito_daubert_foegeding_2013, title={Relationships between Nonlinear Viscoelastic Behavior and Rheological, Sensory and Oral Processing Behavior of Commercial Cheese}, volume={44}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/jtxs.12021}, abstractNote={AbstractCheese texture is primarily determined by its structure. Structural differences can significantly alter rheological, sensory and oral processing behaviors. Large amplitude oscillatory testing (LAOS) has been used to study nonlinear viscoelastic properties of gels, which were related to sensory and oral processing characteristics. Therefore, nonlinear viscoelastic properties of several types of commercial cheese were measured and correlated with rheological, sensory and oral processing characteristics to determine the relationships among these characteristics for more complex food systems. Cheddar, Mozzarella and American cheese were selected for evaluation. Cheddar displayed the greatest degree of nonlinear behavior under LAOS; American cheese displayed the least. Rheological, sensory and oral processing evaluation revealed significant (α = 0.05) differences in behavior of the different cheese. Correlations were found between nonlinear viscoelastic, rheological, sensory and oral processing behaviors. Thus, LAOS testing may be used to gain insight into solid food structure and structural breakdown, yielding additional information on textural properties.Practical ApplicationsThis work extends the use of large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) to real food systems, showing the applicability of this technique to a variety of materials. In addition, LAOS may be used to test foods with a range of textures, from liquids to semisolids to soft solids. Using LAOS to measure the nonlinear viscoelastic properties of foods allows nonlinear behavior to be quantified in foods that cannot be tested with traditional large‐strain rheology due to sample limitations. The nonlinear viscoelastic properties may be used to make inferences on texture and breakdown of food during mastication.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Melito, H. S. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2013}, month={Aug}, pages={253–288} }
 @article{melito_daubert_foegeding_2012, title={Creep and large-amplitude oscillatory shear behavior of whey protein isolate/kappa-carrageenan gels}, volume={22}, number={6}, journal={Applied Rheology}, author={Melito, H. S. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2012}, pages={296–309} }
 @article{cakir_vinyard_essick_daubert_drake_foegeding_2012, title={Interrelations among physical characteristics, sensory perception and oral processing of protein-based soft-solid structures}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0268-005X"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.02.006}, abstractNote={Oral processing is essential in breaking down the physicochemical structure of the food and thus important to the sensory perception of food in the mouth. To have an understanding of protein-based, soft-solid texture perception, a multidisciplinary approach was applied that combined studies of food microstructure with mechanical properties, sensory evaluation, and oral physiology. Model foods were developed by combining ion-induced micro-phase separation and protein-polysaccharide phase separation and inversion. Activities of masseter, anterior temporalis and anterior digastric muscles during oral processing were recorded by electromyography (EMG), while jaw movement amplitudes, durations, and velocities were simultaneously collected by a three-dimensional jaw tracking system (JT-3D). Changes in the microstructure of mixed gels significantly altered the characteristics of the chewing sequence, including the muscle activities, number of chews, chewing duration and chewing frequency. Mechanical attributes related to structural breakdown and sensory perception of firmness were highly correlated with the amount of muscle activity required to transform the initial structure into a bolus ready for swallowing. Chewing frequency was linked to mechanical properties such as recoverable energy, fracture strain and water holding capacity of the gels. Increased adhesiveness and moisture release also resulted in slower chewing frequency. Evaluation of oral processing parameters at various stages (i.e., first cycle, first 5 cycles, and last 3 cycles) was found to be a useful method to investigate the dynamic nature of sensory perception at first bite, during chewing and after swallowing. The study showed that muscle activity and jaw movement can be used to understand the links between physical properties of foods and sensory texture.}, number={1}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Cakir, Esra and Vinyard, Christopher J. and Essick, Gregory and Daubert, Christopher R. and Drake, MaryAnne and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2012}, month={Oct}, pages={234–245} }
 @article{cakir_daubert_drake_vinyard_essick_foegeding_2012, title={The effect of microstructure on the sensory perception and textural characteristics of whey protein/kappa-carrageenan mixed gels}, volume={26}, ISSN={["1873-7137"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.04.011}, abstractNote={The objective of the study was to understand how physical and structural properties of food translate into sensory perception. A range of gels with different structures were developed by combined mechanisms of ion-induced micro-phase separation of whey proteins, whey protein/к-carrageenan phase separation and network inversion. Descriptive sensory analysis was used to assess textural attributes of gels during the oral processing phases of first compression by tongue, first bite, mastication, and post swallow. Large deformation properties and fracture behavior of the gels were determined by uniaxial compression and single-edge notched bend tests. Mechanical properties at varying stages of deformation (before, during and after fracture) and sensory properties at different stages of oral processing (first compression, first bite and after 5–8 chews) followed similar trends based on the change in microstructure. Recoverable energies of gels were in agreement with springiness and compressibility evaluated at first compression in the mouth before biting. Young's modulus together with fracture properties, including critical energy release rate and fracture toughness, varied among different microstructures along with firmness. After the fracture point, the speed of macroscopic breakdown determined the fracture type of the gels, which was related to the degree of fracturability at the first bite. Overall, five out of six microstructures were discriminated in sensory texture properties. It was demonstrated that defined physical and sensorial properties of soft-solid foods can be generated by modifying the gel microstructure through colloidal interactions.}, number={1}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Cakir, Esra and Daubert, Christopher R. and Drake, Mary Anne and Vinyard, Christopher J. and Essick, Gregory and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2012}, month={Jan}, pages={33–43} }
 @article{melito_daubert_foegeding_2012, title={Validation of a large amplitude oscillatory shear protocol}, volume={113}, ISSN={["0260-8774"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.05.008}, abstractNote={Oscillatory shear rheology plays a valuable role in assessing rheological properties of viscoelastic materials. In the linear viscoelastic region (LVR), the stress response to a strain input comprises only the first harmonic. Beyond the LVR, higher-order harmonics have significant contributions, which are not accounted for in the traditional calculation of viscoelastic moduli. Previous study has developed a mathematical framework that accounted for higher-order harmonics during large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS), yielding a physical interpretation to nonlinear data. However, this protocol was not formally validated with model elastic and viscous systems. To that end, a model elastic solid and viscous liquid were tested using LAOS to compare the protocol to standard oscillatory data and the known nonlinear properties of both systems. Good agreement (α = 0.05) was shown between first-order harmonic viscoelastic moduli data for both systems in the linear region. The protocol correctly indicated linear-to-nonlinear transitions of the elastic system, strain-independent linear behavior of the viscous system, and strain-hardening behavior of the elastic system in the nonlinear region. These results indicate the validity of the protocol, which may be applied to food systems to give valuable insights into nonlinear behavior and elucidate structural keys to texture design.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD ENGINEERING}, author={Melito, H. S. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2012}, month={Nov}, pages={124–135} }
 @misc{foegeding_daubert_drake_essick_trulsson_vinyard_velde_2011, title={A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING TEXTURAL PROPERTIES OF SEMI- AND SOFT-SOLID FOODS}, volume={42}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2011.00286.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTFoods such as starch‐ or gelatine‐based desserts, cheese, and processed meats are considered semi‐solid or soft‐solid, viscoelastic materials. Oral processing of these foods starts with either biting a portion from a larger piece or placing a piece in the mouth. Specific textural elements of a food are evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis; however, the time and costs of sensory analysis have motivated the empirical development of mechanical tests that correlate with sensory analysis of texture. While food scientists were evaluating mechanical properties to understand subjective texture, material scientists were developing rheological and fracture‐mechanics approaches to understand material properties in general. Still another group of scientists have focused on the biological mechanisms involved in mastication, oral processing and oral sensation. Understanding the integration of physical, physiological and psychophysical elements of soft‐solid food texture is a relative new area of research and therefore the current understanding of this multidisciplinary approach will be reviewed.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSFood texture is one of the key properties consumers evaluate when determining food quality and acceptability. Changing composition, such as decreasing fat content, is often associated with undesirable changes in texture. This article discusses the interrelationships among physical, physiological and psychophysical elements of soft‐solid food texture. If we could learn how food structure elicits a specific textural response, then a variety of molecules could be used to generate a specific structure and deliver the same texture but with different health implications.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Foegeding, E. A. and Daubert, C. R. and Drake, M. A. and Essick, G. and Trulsson, M. and Vinyard, C. J. and Velde, F.}, year={2011}, month={Apr}, pages={103–129} }
 @article{tanjore_daubert_2011, title={A vane-in-cup approach to measure viscoelastic properties of gelatin gels through torque-time responses from brookfield YR-I viscometer}, volume={21}, number={6}, journal={Applied Rheology}, author={Tanjore, D. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2011} }
 @article{cakir_koc_vinyard_essick_daubert_drake_foegeding_2012, title={EVALUATION OF TEXTURE CHANGES DUE TO COMPOSITIONAL DIFFERENCES USING ORAL PROCESSING}, volume={43}, ISSN={["0022-4901"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2011.00335.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTReplacement of ingredients or reformulating existing products can significantly change textural characteristics. Our aim was to investigate the effects of sensory input from different textures on adaptation of the chewing pattern. Jaw muscle activity and kinematic measures of mastication were collected by electromyography and a three‐dimensional jaw tracking system during chewing of Cheddar cheeses (varying fat content) and caramels (two levels of total fat and sweetened condensed milk). Reducing fat in cheese is associated with increased sensory firmness, springiness and decreased cohesiveness. Oral processing adjusted to decreased fat content with increased closing muscle (temporalis and masseter) activity, a shorter cycle duration and increased power stroke time. Increased adhesiveness in caramels was associated with increased closing and opening muscle activity, longer cycle duration and increased jaw movement. It was shown that changes in composition that produced changes in sensory texture change oral processing parameters of muscle activity and jaw movement.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSUnderstanding the mechanisms of texture perception is essential when tailoring food to meet nutritional needs, while maintaining an acceptable level of quality. Textural characteristics change when ingredients are replaced or products are reformulated. In particular, the textures of low‐fat or low‐calorie products are perceived by consumers to be less pleasing compared with those of traditional foods. Understanding how oral processing is altered in response to changes in texture provides information on the physiology of texture perception that complements sensory analysis and mechanical tests. The aim of this study was to understand how the masticatory sequence adapts to textural variations in cheese and caramel of differing compositions. This information will enhance the understanding of the relationship between food structure and texture perception.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Cakir, Esra and Koc, Hicran and Vinyard, Christopher J. and Essick, Gregory and Daubert, Christopher R. and Drake, Maryanne and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2012}, month={Aug}, pages={257–267} }
 @article{mudgal_daubert_foegeding_2011, title={Effects of protein concentration and CaCl2 on cold-set thickening mechanism of beta-lactoglobulin at low pH}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1879-0143"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.idairyj.2010.11.014}, abstractNote={Abstract Effects of protein concentration and CaCl2 on the cold-thickening mechanism of a pH-modified β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) ingredient were studied. Flexible fibrillar networks were formed at pH 3.35, and more branching was observed with an increase in CaCl2 equating to an increase of ionic strength (I) of 60 m m . This increase in ionic strength of β-lg solutions led to an increased conversion of monomers to aggregates (>106 Da), especially at concentrations above 6.9% (w/w), the critical concentration (Cc) for this modified protein system. A more connected flexible fibrillar network was observed following freeze-drying, with increased viscosities of rehydrated modified powders as compared with modified solutions prior to drying. A small increase in I (∼10 m M ) at concentrations greater than Cc resulted in improved thickening with similar network characteristics and thus provided an option for manipulation of protein and CaCl2 concentration to obtain improved thickening behavior.}, number={5}, journal={INTERNATIONAL DAIRY JOURNAL}, author={Mudgal, P. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2011}, month={May}, pages={319–326} }
 @article{clare_daubert_2011, title={Expanded Functionality of Modified Whey Protein Dispersions after Transglutaminase Catalysis}, volume={76}, ISSN={["1750-3841"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02128.x}, abstractNote={Abstract:  The functionality of whey dispersions, prepared with a modified whey protein concentrate (mWPC) ingredient, was significantly altered after cross‐linking with microbial transglutaminase (TGase) upon pH adjustment to 8. Test TGase–mWPC solutions, pH 8, gelled faster than control mWPC dispersions, as measured in real time; whereas, the gelling temperature of pretreated TGase–mWPC samples (37 °C, 2.5 h) increased from 67.8 to 74.8 °C with a minimal change in gel strength. Prolonged prior incubation with the enzyme (37 °C, 20 h) raised the gel strength in both control mWPC and TGase–mWPC dispersions, though these values were approximately 2.7 times lower in TGase–mWPC samples. Furthermore, the gelling temperature was raised by 9 °C after extensive polymerization. The water holding capacity was not impacted by enzymatic processing while emulsions prepared with TGase–mWPC dispersions proved very stable with no evidence of phase separation during storage at room temperature for 1 mo. Moreover, the apparent viscosity of TGase–mWPC emulsions exhibited a 10‐fold increase compared to nonenzyme‐treated mWPC samples. The particle size was nearly 11 μm in covalently linked TGase–mWPC test fractions compared with 8 μm in nonpolymerized mWPC dispersions. Ultimately, the functional characteristics of TGase–mWPC ingredients may be designed to deliver superior performance, especially with regard to improving heat and emulsion stability.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Clare, Debra A. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2011}, month={May}, pages={C576–C584} }
 @article{mudgal_daubert_foegeding_2011, title={Kinetic study of beta-lactoglobulin thermal aggregation at low pH}, volume={106}, ISSN={["0260-8774"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.04.025}, abstractNote={Kinetics of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) thermal aggregation at pH 3.35, 85 °C, and 2–8% w/w protein concentration was studied using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with multi-angle laser light scattering (MALS) and rheology. Rate of β-lg aggregation was found to be of first order with respect to the initial protein concentration, and the conversion of native-like β-lg monomers/dimers (<36 kDa) to aggregates increased with initial concentration and heating times. The size of the aggregates formed during heating was dependent on the initial protein concentration. A simple nucleation and growth model was described for the β-lg aggregation at pH 3.35, where nucleation was found to be a rate limiting step below the previously identified critical concentration, Cc ∼ 6.4% protein. Above the Cc, nucleation occurred quickly and was not rate limiting. Critical size of the nucleus varied with protein concentration, with larger critical size needed at lower protein concentrations.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD ENGINEERING}, author={Mudgal, P. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2011}, month={Sep}, pages={159–165} }
 @article{yurgec_osborne_steffe_daubert_2012, title={QUANTIFYING SHEAR EFFECTS ON A MODEL EMULSION SYSTEM}, volume={35}, ISSN={["1745-4530"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4530.2011.00640.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTA model corn oil‐in‐water emulsion, stabilized by Tween 20 (0.2–0.6%), was subjected to homogenization conditions of time, number of homogenization cycles and pressure (100–800 bar), which corresponded to predetermined shear work and shear power intensity values. This project investigated the roles that shear work and intensity have on the development and destabilization of a sensitive emulsion system. Samples with the same shear work level produced an emulsion with any identical median particle size (MPS). Particle size data were modeled (MPS is a function of shear work and surfactant concentration). The data revealed a critical shear limit, where an increase in shear work no longer reduced the particle size that was directly related to surfactant concentration. A statistical model was adapted to determine the critical shear work value, resulting in the lowest MPS for each surfactant concentration tested.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSShear work and shear power intensity are rheological tools that can be used to design processing systems to yield optimum product quality. A process technologist can understand the shear limitations of a fluid system simply by understanding the affects that increasing levels of shear work and shear power intensity have on that system. By understanding the shear input that is occurring within a fluid system caused by various unit operations, a process technologist would be able to correlate this to the known shear limitations and make a determination if the process is too severe or not intense enough. Knowledge of this information would enable a process technologist to better select equipment, piping schematics and settings on devices that cause shear, which could lead to more optimum product quality and less product loss caused by over‐ or under‐shearing.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING}, author={Yurgec, M. J. and Osborne, J. and Steffe, J. F. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2012}, month={Dec}, pages={905–914} }
 @article{melito_daubert_2011, title={Rheological Innovations for Characterizing Food Material Properties}, volume={2}, ISBN={["978-0-8243-4902-8"]}, ISSN={["1941-1421"]}, DOI={10.1146/annurev-food-022510-133626}, abstractNote={ Rheological methods are continually evolving to encompass novel technologies and measurement methods. This review highlights novel techniques used to analyze the rheological properties of foods over the previous decade. Techniques reviewed include large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) testing and rheological techniques coupled with other measurement methods, such as microscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Novel techniques are briefly overviewed and discussed in terms of advantages and disadvantages, previous use, and suggested future utilization. }, journal={ANNUAL REVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL 2}, author={Melito, H. S. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2011}, pages={153–179} }
 @article{daubert_2011, title={THE FUTURE DIRECTION OF THE JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, volume={42}, ISSN={["0022-4901"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2011.00313.x}, abstractNote={This issue of the Journal of Texture Studies is the second special issue dedicated to the conference “Food Oral Processing – Physics, Physiology, and Psychology” held in Weetwood Hall, Leeds (U.K.) on July 5–7, 2010. As Editor Jianshe Chen mentioned in his editorial for the first special issue, the conference was the first international gathering dedicated to the fundamental understanding of eating and oral sensations. This issue includes articles originating from the oral presentations given during the conference. These two special issues of the Journal of Texture Studies not only represent recent developments in the field of texture studies but also mark important changes we have decided to make to the editorial direction of the journal. First, we have redefined and expanded the scope of the journal to reflect the multidisciplinary research associated with texture and sensory perception and to acknowledge the growing interdisciplinary connections this research has with the allied health industries. An emerging focus on the essential role of oral and brain processes in the perception of texture has evolved from such novel research fields as food physics, oral physiology, sensory psychology, psychophysics and psychorheology. The editorial team strongly endorses these nascent fields of research, and we will work to make the journal central to its dissemination and future development. Second, to ensure that the journal continues to be the primary source of advances in the understanding of food texture and sensory perception, we have invited a number of experts in these emerging research fields to join the journal's editorial board. We are delighted to welcome seven new board members: Stefan Bair, Milena Corredig, Renee de Wijk, Marco Morgenstern, Jason Stokes, Chris Vinyard and Bettina Wolf. We would also like to acknowledge the emereti board members for their past achievements and continued dedication to the Journal of Texture Studies: Malcolm Cornelius Bourne, Alina Surmacka Szczesniak, Philip Sherman, M. Anandha Rao and V.N. Mohan Rao. We are very excited about the future direction of the Journal of Texture Studies, all of which could not be possible without the attention and care that all members of the editorial team and the board, past and present, have given to ensure the journal's continued impact on the fields of texture studies and sensory perception. My gratitude and appreciation – thank you!}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2011}, month={Jun}, pages={173–173} }
 @article{mudgal_daubert_clare_foegeding_2011, title={Effect of Disulfide Interactions and Hydrolysis on the Thermal Aggregation of beta-Lactoglobulin}, volume={59}, ISSN={["1520-5118"]}, DOI={10.1021/jf101893v}, abstractNote={The roles of sulfhydryl/disulfide interactions and acid/pepsin hydrolysis on β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) thermal aggregation at acidic pH 3.35 and 2 were studied using rheology, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Western blotting. Pepsin promoted additional hydrolysis compared to the acid-hydrolyzed control sample based on a 12% increase in free amino groups. Hydrolysis with pepsin also resulted in an increase in the apparent viscosity by 2 logs upon heating 8% β-lg solutions at pH 3.35. Seemingly, hydrolysis promoted thermal aggregation of β-lg, correlating well with viscosity increases. Large microgels were observed in heated pepsin hydrolysates using TEM, supporting the increased viscosities of these dispersions. During thermal aggregation (85 °C, 3 h) of β-lg at pH 3.35, beyond the existence of limited disulfide interactions, acid hydrolysis and noncovalent interactions more likely play a crucial role in defining the functionality of acidified powdered modified whey ingredients.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY}, author={Mudgal, Prashant and Daubert, Christopher R. and Clare, Debra A. and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2011}, month={Mar}, pages={1491–1497} }
 @article{rogers_mcmahon_daubert_berry_foegeding_2010, title={Rheological properties and microstructure of Cheddar cheese made with different fat contents}, volume={93}, ISSN={["1525-3198"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.2010-3494}, abstractNote={Reduced- and low-fat cheeses are desired based on composition but often fall short on overall quality. One of the major problems with fat reduction in cheese is the development of a firm texture that does not break down during mastication, unlike that observed in full-fat cheeses. The objective of this investigation was to determine how the amount of fat affects the structure of Cheddar cheese from initial formation (2 wk) through 24 wk of aging. Cheeses were made with target fat contents of 3 to 33% (wt/wt) and moisture to protein ratios of 1.5:1. This allowed for comparisons based on relative amounts of fat and protein gel phases. Cheese microstructure was determined by confocal scanning laser microscopy combined with quantitative image analysis. Rheological analysis was used to determine changes in mechanical properties. Increasing fat content caused an increase in size of fat globules and a higher percentage of nonspherical globules. However, no changes in fat globules were observed with aging. Cheese rigidity (storage modulus) increased with fat content at 10°C, but differences attributable to fat were not apparent at 25°C. This was attributable to the storage modulus of fat approaching that of the protein gel; therefore, the amount of fat or gel phase did not have an effect on the cheese storage modulus. The rigidity of cheese decreased with storage and, because changes in the fat phase were not detected, it appeared to be attributable to changes in the gel network. It appeared that the diminished textural quality in low-fat Cheddar cheese is attributed to changes in the breakdown pattern during chewing, as altered by fat disrupting the cheese network.}, number={10}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Rogers, N. R. and McMahon, D. J. and Daubert, C. R. and Berry, T. K. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2010}, month={Oct}, pages={4565–4576} }
 @article{clare_daubert_2010, title={Transglutaminase Catalysis of Modified Whey Protein Dispersions}, volume={75}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01605.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:  Transglutaminase (TGase) cross‐linking reactions were accomplished using a heat‐modified whey protein concentrate (mWPC) substrate after pH adjustment to 8. Based on earlier reports, the degree of lactosylation with respect to β‐lactoglobulin was lower in mWPC dispersions than measured in commercial whey concentrate (cWPC) protein solutions. In this study, a higher concentration of free sulfhydryl groups was detected in soluble supernatant fractions. Both factors potentially impact the availability of reactive lysine/glutaminyl residues required for TGase reactivity. The addition of 10 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) to the substrate mix, CBZ‐glutaminyl glycine and hydroxylamine, revealed a 3.6‐fold increase in TGase activity, likely due in part to maintenance of the catalytic cysteine residue in a reduced state. Furthermore, inclusion of DTT to mWPC dispersions significantly raised the apparent viscosity, independently of enzyme modification, while the rate of polymerization increased 2‐fold based on OPA assay measurements. Limited cross‐linking slightly increased the apparent viscosity, whereas extensive coupling lowered these values compared to equivalent nonenzyme‐treated mWPC samples. Carbohydrate‐staining revealed formation of glyco‐polymers due to covalent linkages between glucosamine and mWPC proteins after TGase processing. Again, the apparent viscosity decreased after extensive enzymatic modification. Larger particles, sized 11.28 μm, were observed in the structural matrix of TGase‐mWPC‐fixed samples compared to 8 μm particles in control mWPC samples as viewed in scanning electron micrographs. Ultimately, the functional characteristics of TGase‐mWPC ingredients may be custom‐designed to deliver alternative functional attributes by adjusting the experimental reaction conditions under which catalysis is achieved.Practical Application: Taken together, these results suggest that unique TGase‐mWPC and/or TGase‐mWPC‐glucosamine ingredients may be designed to provide novel, value‐added, polymeric/glyco‐polymeric protein products that afford added benefit for the milk industry.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Clare, Debra A. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2010}, month={May}, pages={C369–C377} }
 @article{mudgal_daubert_foegeding_2009, title={Cold-set thickening mechanism of beta-lactoglobulin at low pH: Concentration effects}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1873-7137"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.03.009}, abstractNote={There is an interest in developing protein based thickening agents for nutritional considerations. A procedure to convert whey protein concentrates or isolates into a pH modified cold-thickening ingredient was developed. Concentration effects on thickening mechanism of this whey protein ingredient were studied with a β-lactoglobulin model system at the pH of the modification procedure, 3.35. In this study, concentration effects on thermal aggregation of β-lactoglobulin were studied at low pH using capillary and rotational viscometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with multi-angle laser light scattering (HPLC-MALS). From the results of capillary viscometry, a critical concentration (Cc ∼ 6.9% w/w) was identified below which no significant thickening functionality could be achieved. Microscopy revealed formation of flexible fibrillar network at pH 3.35 during heating at all concentrations. These flexible fibrils had a diameter of about 5 nm and persistence length of about 35 nm as compared to more linear and stiff fibrils formed at pH 2 and low ionic strength conditions. Under similar heating conditions at concentration above Cc, larger aggregates similar to microgels were observed compared to the concentration below Cc, where isolated fibrils with an average contour length of about 130 nm were observed. These microgels and apparently stronger interactions between aggregates at concentrations above Cc were seemingly responsible for thickening functionality of heated β-lactoglobulin solutions and subsequently modified powders. Further investigation of β-lactoglobulin aggregation at this pH may provide capability to mechanistically tailor the functional attributes of modified ingredients.}, number={7}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Mudgal, P. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2009}, month={Oct}, pages={1762–1770} }
 @article{asghar_anjum_allen_daubert_rasool_2009, title={Effect of modified whey protein concentrates on empirical and fundamental dynamic mechanical properties of frozen dough}, volume={23}, ISSN={["0268-005X"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.01.005}, abstractNote={Dairy byproduct proteins are considered natural functional additives having the ability to interact with the starch and gluten network in a dough system and thus behave as dough improvers. Native whey proteins have negative effect in bread making so whey protein concentrates modified to increase viscosity in solution (mWPC) might overcome undesirable weakening of the gluten network which usually occurs in frozen dough products during prolonged times in frozen storage. The objective of this research project was to determine the effect of mWPC on empirical and fundamental dynamic rheological properties of wheat flour dough. The results for empirical rheological studies showed that addition of mWPC had significant effects on mixographic parameters and also increased values of mixing time and peak height percentage. The results for the fundamental mechanical properties of the frozen dough revealed an increase in the values of G′ with the increase in the frequency, along with an upward trend with increasing temperature, but the highest values were obtained after cooling. Addition of mWPC in the dough treatments induced softening in the dough system, as shown by the decrease in the values of the viscoelastic moduli. Rheological and textural changes in the bakery products made from frozen dough could be imparted by the incorporation of modified whey protein concentrates as dough improvers.}, number={7}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Asghar, Ali and Anjum, Faqir Muhammad and Allen, Jonathan C. and Daubert, Christopher R. and Rasool, Ghulam}, year={2009}, month={Oct}, pages={1687–1692} }
 @article{lillard_clare_daubert_2009, title={Glycosylation and expanded utility of a modified whey protein ingredient via carbohydrate conjugation at low pH}, volume={92}, ISSN={["1525-3198"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.2008-1263}, abstractNote={Whey protein, at one time considered a by-product of the cheese-making process, is now commonly used in foods for its thickening and emulsifying properties. Currently, approximately 30% of these proteinaceous resources remain under-utilized. Previously, an acidified, thermally treated whey protein concentrate (mWPC) was developed to produce a cold-set thickening ingredient. Mass spectroscopy revealed an approximate 2.5-fold decrease in the lactosylation of beta-lactoglobulin in mWPC starting materials compared with commercial whey protein concentrates, manufactured at a higher pH. Potentially, this should increase the number of reactive sites that remain available for carbohydrate attachment. With this study, the formation of glycoprotein complexes was demonstrated between the mWPC ingredient and lactose, naturally occurring in mWPC powders, or between mWPC protein components with dextran (35 to 45 and 100 to 200 kDa) materials at low pH. In fact, additional dry heating of mWPC powders showed a 3-fold increase in the amount of lactosylated beta-lactoglobulin. Evidence of Maillard reactivity was suggested using colorimetry, o-phthaldialdehyde assays, and sodium dodecyl sulfate PAGE followed by glycoprotein staining. Resultant glycoprotein dispersions exhibited altered functionality, in which case steady shear and small amplitude oscillatory rheology parameters were shown to be dependent on the specific reducing sugar present. Furthermore, the emulsion stability of mWPC-dextran fractions was 2 to 3 times greater than either mWPC or commercial WPC dispersions based on creaming index values. The water-holding capacity of all test samples decreased with additional heating steps; however, mWPC-dextran powders still retained nearly 6 times their weight of water. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that mWPC-dextran conjugates formed a porous network that differed significantly from the dense network observed with mWPC samples. This porosity likely affected both the rheological and water-binding properties of mWPC-dextran complexes. Taken together, these results suggest that the functionality of mWPC ingredients can be enhanced by conjugation with carbohydrate materials at low pH, especially with regard to improving the emulsifying attributes.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Lillard, J. S. and Clare, D. A. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2009}, month={Jan}, pages={35–48} }
 @article{rogers_drake_daubert_mcmahon_bletsch_foegeding_2009, title={The effect of aging on low-fat, reduced-fat, and full-fat Cheddar cheese texture}, volume={92}, ISSN={["1525-3198"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.2009-2156}, abstractNote={This study investigated the effects of aging and fat content on the texture of Cheddar cheese, both mechanical and sensory aspects, over a 9-mo aging period. Cheeses of 6, 16, and 33% fat were tested at 0.5, 3, 6, and 9 mo of aging. Cheeses were evaluated by a trained sensory panel using an established texture lexicon as well as instrumental methods, which were used to probe cheese structure. Sensory analysis showed that low-fat cheeses were differentiated from full-fat cheeses by being more springy and firm and this difference widened as the cheeses aged. In addition, full-fat cheeses broke down more during chewing than the lower fat cheeses and the degree of breakdown increased with aging. Mechanical properties were divided by magnitude of deformation during the test and separated into 3 ranges: the linear viscoelastic region, the nonlinear region, and fracture point. These regions represent a stress/strain response from low to high magnitude, respectively. Strong relationships between sensory terms and rheological properties determined in the linear (maximum compliance) and nonlinear (critical stress and strain and a nonlinear shape factor) regions were revealed. Some correlations were seen with fracture values, but these were not as high as terms related to the nonlinear region of the cheeses. The correlations pointed to strain-weakening behavior being the critical mechanical property. This was associated with higher fat content cheeses breaking down more as strain increased up to fracture. Increased strain weakening associated with an increase in fat content was attributed to fat producing weak points in the protein network, which became initiation sites for fracture within the structure. This suggests that fat replacers need to serve this functional role.}, number={10}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Rogers, N. R. and Drake, M. A. and Daubert, C. R. and McMahon, D. J. and Bletsch, T. K. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2009}, month={Oct}, pages={4756–4772} }
 @article{zhang_daubert_mulligan_foegeding_2008, title={Additive effects on the rheological behavior of alginate gels}, volume={39}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2008.00159.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT The effects of dextran and glycerol on the rheological properties of 1.25% alginate gels were studied. Although the dextran and glycerol dramatically changed the viscosity of the alginate solution, the gelation kinetics was not affected. This observation may be attributed to the fact that the gelling process was controlled by the combination of carboxylic groups in alginate chains with Ca2
          +
          , and not by the diffusion process of alginate molecules and Ca2
          +
          through the viscous medium. The small‐strain shear modulus of alginate gels with either low molecular‐weight dextran (MW: 140,000 Da) or glycerol remained nearly constant, as did the large deformation and fracture properties. The addition of high molecular‐weight dextran (MW: 4–5 million Da) altered the small‐strain shear modulus and lowered the gel fracture stress of the alginate gels, while the fracture strain remained the same. The change in small‐strain shear modulus and large deformation and fracture properties for alginate gels with high MW dextran cannot simply be explained by the change in viscosity of the gel liquid phase. A plausible explanation for this behavior is that, in some manner, large dextran molecules influenced the alginate gel network. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSA common characteristic of food gels is a three‐dimensional network formed by primary gel‐forming materials, such as proteins and polysaccharides. Alongside the gelling material(s), additives are frequently included to attain desirable functionality. The gel network stabilizes the system, and the physiochemical properties of gels are dominated by structural organization at the molecular level. The inclusion of additives may affect physical and chemical properties of the gels, and subsequently, the rheological properties. Rational optimization of product formulations and processing conditions of food gels depends on a better understanding of the impact of additives on processing and rheological properties.}, number={5}, journal={Journal of Texture Studies}, author={Zhang, J. and Daubert, C. R. and Mulligan, J. H. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2008}, pages={582–603} }
 @article{grabowski_truong_daubert_2008, title={Nutritional and rheological characterization of spray dried sweetpotato powder}, volume={41}, ISSN={["0023-6438"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.lwt.2007.02.019}, abstractNote={Spray drying feasibility of sweetpotato puree is enhanced using alpha-amylase treatment to reduce puree viscosity and maltodextrin (MD) addition to facilitate drying. To better determine potential applications of powders produced with various levels of amylase and MD, nutrient composition and rheological properties of the hydrated spray dried sweetpotato powders were examined and compared with sweetpotato puree. Proximate composition, beta-carotene, vitamin C, and mineral analyses were performed. Steady shear rheology of reconstituted powder solutions was also evaluated at different temperatures and shear rates. Spray drying significantly reduced the β-carotene and ascorbic acid contents. Additionally, the all-trans form of beta-carotene was further transformed to the cis-isomers during dehydration. The viscosity of the reconstituted solutions was much lower than that of the puree at the same solid concentration. Rheologically, the reconstituted sweetpotato slurries behaved similarly to pregelatinized starch solutions. Thus, spray dried sweetpotato powders have a potential to enhance food systems as a thickener despite the need for increased nutrient retention.}, number={2}, journal={LWT-FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY}, author={Grabowski, J. A. and Truong, V. -D. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2008}, pages={206–216} }
 @article{zhang_daubert_foegeding_2007, title={A proposed strain-hardening mechanism for alginate gels}, volume={80}, ISSN={["0260-8774"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.04.057}, abstractNote={The non-linear viscoelastic properties of alginate gels were investigated using torsion and compression rheological tests. Like many biopolymers, alginate gels showed strain-hardening behavior during large deformation, and the degree of strain-hardening depended on gel composition. The strain-hardening behavior of alginate gels was attributed to the deformation of rod-like junction zones serving as physical crosslinks in the gel. A constitutive equation based on the deformation of junction zones and a Gaussian distribution network of chains was developed to predict deformation behavior. The resulting equation effectively described the experimental data during torsion and compression, supporting the proposed mechanism that strain-hardening originates from the deformation of alginate junction zones.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD ENGINEERING}, author={Zhang, Junhua and Daubert, Christopher R. and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2007}, month={May}, pages={157–165} }
 @article{clare_lillard_ramsey_amato_daubert_2007, title={Calcium effects on the functionality of a modified whey protein ingredient}, volume={55}, ISSN={["1520-5118"]}, DOI={10.1021/jf071613z}, abstractNote={The primary objective for this study addressed the effects of supplemental calcium on the functional properties of a modified whey protein ingredient (mWPC), prepared by acidification to pH 3.35, followed by extended heat treatment, gelation, and spray drying. In the presence of added calcium (mWPC-Ca2+), protein solutions showed increased thickening capacity, especially under refrigeration temperatures, compared to dispersions made with mWPC alone. A rheological assessment included the determination of (i) power law parameters, (ii) viscoelastic properties, and (iii) the effects of heating and cooling on these protein systems. The sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) banding profile suggested that various disulfide-linked molecular forms of beta-lactoglobulin, bovine serum albumin, and immunoglobulin were likely formed during manufacturing of the mWPC ingredient based on the patterns obtained when electrophoresis was performed in the absence of beta-mercaptoethanol compared to those observed with commercial WPC samples. An enhanced water-holding capacity was measured in mWPC-Ca2+ dispersions. Differential scanning calorimetry established that the addition of calcium salts caused a 2-fold increase in the amount of bound or unfreezeable water compared to mWPC controls. The physical appearance of the network structure varied significantly upon visualization with scanning electron microscopy, in which case the formation of large, rounded, spherical structures was noted in mWPC-Ca2+ samples, ascribed to an increased surface tension caused by the higher salt content. Ultimately, such attributes may afford distinct advantages for whey-based ingredients intended for application within food systems, especially under cold processing conditions.}, number={26}, journal={JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY}, author={Clare, Debra A. and Lillard, S. John and Ramsey, Sharon R. and Amato, Penny M. and Daubert, Christopher R.}, year={2007}, month={Dec}, pages={10932–10940} }
 @article{childs_daubert_stefanski_foegeding_2007, title={Factors regulating cheese shreddability}, volume={90}, ISSN={["0022-0302"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.2006-618}, abstractNote={Two sets of cheeses were evaluated to determine factors that affect shred quality. The first set of cheeses was made up of 3 commercial cheeses, Monterey Jack, Mozzarella, and process. The second set of cheeses was made up of 3 Mozzarella cheeses with varying levels of protein and fat at a constant moisture content. A shred distribution of long shreds, short shreds, and fines was obtained by shredding blocks of cheese in a food processor. A probe tack test was used to directly measure adhesion of the cheese to a stainless-steel surface. Surface energy was determined based on the contact angles of standard liquids, and rheological characterization was done by a creep and recovery test. Creep and recovery data were used to calculate the maximum and initial compliance and retardation time. Shredding defects of fines and adhesion to the blade were observed in commercial cheeses. Mozzarella did not adhere to the blade but did produce the most fines. Both Monterey Jack and process cheeses adhered to the blade and produced fines. Furthermore, adherence to the blade was correlated positively with tack energy and negatively with retardation time. Mozzarella cheese, with the highest fat and lowest protein contents, produced the most fines but showed little adherence to the blade, even though tack energy increased with fat content. Surface energy was not correlated with shredding defects in either group of cheese. Rheological properties and tack energy appeared to be the key factors involved in shredding defects.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Childs, J. L. and Daubert, C. R. and Stefanski, L. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2007}, month={May}, pages={2163–2174} }
 @article{cramp_kwanyuen_daubert_2008, title={Molecular interactions and functionality of a cold-gelling soy protein isolate}, volume={73}, ISSN={["1750-3841"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00583.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:  A soy protein isolate (SPI) was thermally denatured at a critical concentration of 8% protein for 3 h at 95 °C, resulting in a powder that was readily reconstituted at ambient temperature and that demonstrated improved heat stability and cold‐set gel functionality when compared to a control SPI. When SPI was heated at 3% protein equivalently, prior to reconstitution to 8% protein, the final viscosity was about 3 orders of magnitude less than the original sample. The viscosity of SPI heated at 3% protein was still nearly 2 orders of magnitude less than the original sample after both samples were reheated at 8% protein. These results suggested that heat denaturation at low protein concentrations limited network formation even after the protein concentration and interaction sites increased, impacting the isolate's cold gelling ability. Gelation was prevented upon treatment of SPI with iodoacetamide, which carbaminomethylated the cysteine residues, establishing the role of disulfide bonds in network formation. The viscosity of the 8% protein dispersion was also reduced by 2 orders of magnitude when treated with 8 M urea, and when combined with 10 mM DTT the gel viscosity was decreased by another order of magnitude. These results suggested that hydrophobic interactions played a primary role in gel strength after disulfide bonds form. The need for a higher concentration of protein during the heating step indicated that the critical disulfide bonds are intermolecular. Ultimately, the functionality produced by these protein–protein interactions produced a powdered soy protein isolate ingredient with consistent cold‐set and thermal gelation properties.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Cramp, G. L. and Kwanyuen, P. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2008}, pages={E16–E24} }
 @article{zhong_daubert_velev_2007, title={Physicochemical variables affecting the rheology and microstructure of rennet casein gels}, volume={55}, ISSN={["1520-5118"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-34247203562&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1021/jf0625914}, abstractNote={The rheology and microstructure of a rennet casein system were studied in the pH range from 5.8 to 12.0 during cooling from 80 to 5 degrees C at four cooling rates: 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, and 0.025 degrees C/min. A dramatic increase in storage modulus with pH was observed during cooling at a fixed cooling rate. Continuous networks were formed for gels at pH 7.2 and above, while a discontinuous network was observed for gels below pH 6.5. The monotonic increase in storage modulus with pH could be correlated to the number of net (negative) charges and the strength of the hydrophobic interactions. At a higher pH, the protein micelles were larger due to weaker hydrophobic interactions and stronger repulsive electrostatic interactions resulting from more charges. When these protein micelles aggregated into flocs during cooling, the flocs had similar sizes at different pH values but a smaller fractal dimension at a higher pH. Consequently, for systems of the same protein and salt concentrations, more flocs were present in the gels at a higher pH, which subsequently generated more cross-links and a higher storage modulus. The pH also determined how the cooling rate affected the gel properties. At pH 5.8 and 6.5, the gels were firmest at the fastest cooling schedule, and the cooling rate did not show a trend in affecting the gel strength at the other three rates. On the other hand, a slower cooling rate generated a firmer gel at pH 7.2 and 12.0. The analysis of casein interactions suggests that the cooling rate affected the casein floc size only when repulsive interactions enabled a slow flocculation (at higher pH values) comparable with temperature change rates during cooling. For rennet casein gels of pH within the range of processed cheese products (pH 5.8 and 6.5), particle or cluster rearrangements created more uniform networks for gels cooled at slower schedules and weakened the structure.}, number={7}, journal={JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY}, author={Zhong, Qixin and Daubert, Christopher R. and Velev, Orlin D.}, year={2007}, month={Apr}, pages={2688–2697} }
 @article{hamann_zhang_daubert_foegeding_diehl_2006, title={Analysis of compression, tension and torsion for testing food gel fracture properties}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2006.00074.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Three fracture test methods: uniaxial compression, uniaxial tension and torsion were examined by interpreting results using theories upon which the methods were based. In each of these tests, the fracture of gels can occur as a result of shear, compression or tension. The fracture properties determined from uniaxial compression and tension were compared with torsion testing, a suitable reference technique. Shear stress and strain in uniaxial compression were comparable with shear stress and strain in torsion. However, the tensile stress in compression is not in agreement with that in torsion. Tensile stress or shear stress values in uniaxial tension were generally comparable with tensile or shear stress values in torsion, while the strain levels in uniaxial tension were typically much lower than those in uniaxial compression or torsion. This result could be related to the fracture strain being a function of elongation necessary to reduce the specimen cross section to an area producing the critical fracture stress. The comparison among different methods revealed shear stress and strain can be the fracture criteria for uniaxial compression, and tensile stress can be the fracture criterion for uniaxial tension, whereas the fracture strain criterion in uniaxial tension cannot be specified. Possible mechanisms for differences among methods are discussed in the manuscript. }, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Hamann, Donald D. and Zhang, Junhua and Daubert, Christopher R. and Foegeding, E. Allen and Diehl, Kenneth C., Jr.}, year={2006}, month={Dec}, pages={620–639} }
 @book{steffe_daubert_2006, title={Bioprocessing pipelines: Rheology and analysis}, ISBN={0963203622}, author={Steffe, J. F. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2006} }
 @article{zhang_daubert_foegeding_2006, title={Polyacrylamide gels as elastic models for food gels: Fracture properties affected by dextran and glycerol}, volume={37}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2006.00046.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Influence of dextran and glycerol on fracture properties of 10% polyacrylamide (PAAm) gels was studied as a representative model system for food gels. No direct relationship was found between the fracture properties and gel liquid‐phase viscosity. In general, addition of dextran and glycerol did not affect gel network crosslink density and chain length. With minimal dextran addition, fracture stress and strain experienced large increases. Increase of the fracture stress and strain was attributed to fracture mode transition from elastic to elasto‐plastic fracture, resulting from dextran addition. Plastic deformation at the crack tips, acting as fracture‐initiating points, prior to fracture propagation lowered stress concentration effect. Sensitivity of 10% PAAm gels, with/without dextran, to induced imperfections showed the fracture stress to be higher than expected based on Griffith's energy balance criteria, manifesting in a delayed fracture process. The plastic deformation was ascribed to the delayed crack nucleation resulting from dextran addition. The fracture stress and strain of 10% PAAm gels increased with glycerol addition. The increase in fracture properties was attributed to plastic deformation, caused by a delayed crack nucleation prior to fracture propagation. The mechanism of delayed crack nucleation remains unclear, but the results obtained from this investigation can be used to understand reasons for the change in fracture property of food gels created by additives. }, number={2}, journal={Journal of Texture Studies}, author={Zhang, J. H. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2006}, pages={200–220} }
 @misc{resch_daubert_2006, title={Process for producing cold-gelling hydrocolloids}, volume={6,987,182}, publisher={Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office}, author={Resch, J. J. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2006} }
 @article{daubert_hudson_foegeding_prabhasankar_2006, title={Rheological characterization and electrokinetic phenomena of charged whey protein dispersions of defined sizes}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1096-1127"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.lwt.2004.12.013}, abstractNote={A multi-step processing technique produced large colloidal particles from whey proteins, prompting instantaneous thickening upon hydration. Analysis of the rheological characteristics and zeta potential of the modified whey suspensions of defined particle sizes allowed investigation into the role of size on ingredient functionality. Preliminarily, the modified protein powders were sieved to achieve three size ranges, and analyzes were conducted on each of the three distributions and the non-sieved fractions. Following hydration, steady and oscillatory shear analyzes were performed using a controlled stress rheometer to determine rheological characteristics. Intrinsic viscosity was determined with a capillary viscometer and application of the Huggins equation. Zeta potential was calculated from colloidal electrophoretic mobility, measured with a ZetaPALS analyser. After thorough hydration, particle-size analysis revealed a size increase of >1.3 times for each fraction. When analysed on a protein basis, increasing particle size yielded an increase to intrinsic viscosity, flow behavior index, zero shear viscosity, and a decreased zeta potential and consistency coefficient. Knowledge of the interrelationship between zeta potential, rheological properties, and particle size of the modified whey ingredient will further advance an understanding of the functionality of this protein ingredient.}, number={3}, journal={LWT-FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY}, author={Daubert, CR and Hudson, HM and Foegeding, EA and Prabhasankar, P}, year={2006}, pages={206–215} }
 @article{barrangou_drake_daubert_foegeding_2006, title={Sensory texture related to large-strain rheological properties of agar/glycerol gels as a model food}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2006.00050.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Descriptive sensory analysis and large‐strain rheological methods were used to evaluate textural characteristics of agar gels as a model food. The gels were differentiated in the same manner by sensory analysis and rheological properties (P ≤ 0.05), and significant correlations between sensory and rheological properties were reported. First bite and chew‐down sensory terms correlated with each other and with fracture properties. Specifically, the first bite sensory term “fracture force” correlated with the chew‐down sensory term “chewiness” (r = 0.99, P ≤ 0.001), and both of these sensory terms were correlated with fracture stress (σf) and modulus (r = 0.94 − 0.97, P ≤ 0.05). The first bite sensory term “deformability” was positively correlated with fracture strain (r = 0.88, P ≤ 0.05) and negatively correlated with the strain‐hardening constant (r = −0.93, P ≤ 0.05). The chew‐down property “particle breakdown” was negatively correlated with σf values (r = −0.97, P ≤ 0.05). For agar gels, each sensory texture term can be linked with a large‐strain mechanical property.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Barrangou, Lisa M. and Drake, Mary Anne and Daubert, Christopher R. and Foegeding, E. Allen}, year={2006}, month={Jun}, pages={241–262} }
 @article{grabowski_truong_daubert_2006, title={Spray-drying of amylase hydrolyzed sweetpotato puree and physicochemical properties of powder}, volume={71}, ISSN={["1750-3841"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00036.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:  Spray‐drying, which has been used for commercial production of functional ingredients from several fruits and vegetables, has not yet been studied for sweetpotato processing. Thus, the objective was to determine the effects of viscosity reduction of sweetpotato puree with alpha‐amylase, maltodextrin (MD) addition, and inlet air temperature on the physicochemical characteristics of spray‐dried sweetpotato powder. A face‐centered cube design was used to evaluate the effects of amylase level (0, 3.75, and 7.5 mL/kg puree), MD concentration (0%, 10%, and 20%), and inlet air temperature (150 °C, 190 °C, and 220 °C) on powder characteristics. Model‐fitting using response surface methodology was performed to examine the effects of independent variables on the moisture content, color, water absorption, solubility, particle size, bulk density, and glass transition temperature. The data were fit to a full second order polynomial equation. However, only the linear and quadratic terms proved to be significant for most dried powder attributes. MD significantly increased powder solubility, altered the hue value, and raised the glass transition temperature of the powder. Pretreatment with alpha‐amylase resulted in a lower glass transition temperature and a decrease in particle size. Overall, results show that good quality sweetpotato powders can be produced using this drying method, with potential applications in food and nutraceutical products.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Grabowski, J. A. and Truong, V. -D. and Daubert, C. R.}, year={2006}, pages={E209–E217} }
 @article{barrangou_daubert_foegeding_2006, title={Textural properties of agarose gels. I. Rheological and fracture properties}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0268-005X"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005.02.019}, abstractNote={Small- and large-strain rheological methods were used to develop rheological profiles of agarose gels, including linear, non-linear, and fracture properties. Gel properties were examined under conditions of varying agarose concentration (0.5–2.5% w/w), glycerol concentration (0–60% w/w), and strain rate (0.0017–0.17 s−1). Small-strain behaviors were primarily elastic with only slight frequency dependence. Large-strain behaviors and fracture properties were dependent upon strain rate, agarose and glycerol concentration. Increasing concentrations of agarose produced an increasingly stronger, more brittle network, while increasing concentrations of glycerol produced an increasingly stronger, more deformable network. All fracture properties and non-linear behaviors increased with increasing strain rate in a similar manner, suggesting a general mechanism responsible for strain rate effects that is similar for non-linear and fracture behavior. Increasing concentrations of agarose and glycerol, respectively, increased and decreased the strain rate dependence of non-linear behavior. Phenomenological models were evaluated for describing non-linear behavior. A second-order polynomial equation was determined to describe the data more accurately than the commonly used BST equation [Blatz, P. J., Sharda, S. C., & Tschoegl, N. W. (1974). Strain energy function for rubberlike materials based on a generalized measure of strain. Transactions of the Society of Rheology, 18 (1) 145–161.], providing an estimated parameter that allowed relative non-linear behavior to be reliably quantified.}, number={2-3}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Barrangou, LM and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2006}, pages={184–195} }
 @article{barrangou_drake_daubert_foegeding_2006, title={Textural properties of agarose gels. II. Relationships between rheological properties and sensory texture}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1873-7137"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005.03.013}, abstractNote={Descriptive analysis was used to quantify the perceived hand texture characteristics of agarose gels, and results were compared with previously developed fundamental rheological profiles to determine if relationships could be established. Four texture attributes were used to describe the gels, including ‘hand small-strain force’, ‘hand springiness’, ‘hand fracture force’, and ‘hand fracture deformation’. Gels were differentiated similarly by sensory analysis and fracture properties (p≤0.05). Hand small-strain force and ‘hand-fracture force’ terms were capable of differentiating the gels equally as well, indicating that relative gel strength was perceived similarly with non-destructive and fracture causing deformations. Surprisingly, the hand force terms correlated more highly with fracture modulus (fractures stress/fracture strain) values (r≥0.98, p≤0.001) than fracture stress values (r=0.76–0.82, p≤0.05), suggesting sensory perception of force includes a coupling of stress and strain. The definition of the term hand fracture deformation was very similar to the commonly used sensory term ‘cohesiveness’, and was highly correlated with fracture strain values (r=0.98, p≤0.001). Linear viscoelastic properties could not distinguish gels as sensitively as fracture properties. These findings clearly demonstrate fracture properties are capable of predicting sensory texture properties.}, number={2-3}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Barrangou, LM and Drake, M and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2006}, pages={196–203} }
 @article{zhang_daubert_foegeding_2005, title={Characterization of polyacrylamide gels as an elastic model for food gels}, volume={44}, ISSN={["1435-1528"]}, DOI={10.1007/s00397-005-0444-5}, number={6}, journal={RHEOLOGICA ACTA}, author={Zhang, JH and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2005}, month={Jul}, pages={622–630} }
 @article{firebaugh_daubert_2005, title={Emulsifying and foaming properties of a derivatized whey protein ingredient}, volume={8}, ISSN={["1532-2386"]}, DOI={10.1081/jfp-200060245}, abstractNote={A derivatization procedure for the production of a cold gelling whey protein isolate (WPI) has been identified. The cold gelling derivatized whey protein isolate (dWPI) imparted greater viscosity and water holding ability when rehydrated at room temperature than unmodified whey powders. The objective of this study was to further characterize the foaming and emulsifying functionality of the derivatized ingredient. Samples were prepared by hydrating dWPI and WPI in deionized water and, when needed, adjusting the sample pH from 3.4 to 6.8, with 6M NaOH. Yield stress, drainage, and overrun were measured for 6.5% WPI and dWPI foams. Emulsifying capacity and creaming stability were determined for various WPI and dWPI emulsions. The overrun of dWPI foams was approximately 50% lower than WPI foams at pH 3.4 and 6.8. Foams of the derivatized ingredient were significantly more stable than WPI foams. The derivatized ingredient displayed a similar emulsifying capacity to WPI at pH 3.4 and pH 7.0, and differences were not observed in creaming of dWPI and WPI emulsions. Information on foaming and emulsifying ability of derivatized protein ingredients will expedite the development of applications with the novel dairy ingredient, particularly in those foods desiring an all-natural, or all dairy, food label.}, number={2}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES}, author={Firebaugh, JD and Daubert, CR}, year={2005}, pages={243–253} }
 @article{zhang_daubert_foegeding_2005, title={Fracture analysis of alginate gels}, volume={70}, ISSN={["1750-3841"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb11471.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:The fracture properties of alginate gels were investigated using torsion and compression. The gel fracture stress correlated with Ca2+ and alginate concentration, whereas the fracture strain was insensitive to composition. Considering the relationship of fracture stress with gel network crosslink density and the energy to break covalent and noncovalent bonds, the fracture of alginate gels is hypothesized to result from the disruption of junction zones. Consequently, the fracture stress was the stress required to overcome electrostatic forces that formed junction zones. The fracture stress‐strain relationship for alginate gels can be described by the Blatz, Sharda, adn Tschoegl (BST) equation, suggesting that for a given gel, the fracture strain can be predicted based on fracture stress, small‐strain shear modulus, and a fitted parameter describing nonlinearity of the gel. In addition, the fracture properties were affected by deformation rate. The influence of deformation rate on fracture was ascribed to structural changes among the alginate junction zones.}, number={7}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Zhang, JH and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2005}, month={Sep}, pages={E425–E431} }
 @misc{williams_wright_den truong_daubert_vinyard_2005, title={Mechanical properties of foods used in experimental studies of primate masticatory function}, volume={67}, ISSN={["1098-2345"]}, DOI={10.1002/ajp.20189}, abstractNote={In vivo studies of jaw-muscle behavior have been integral factors in the development of our current understanding of the primate masticatory apparatus. However, even though it has been shown that food textures and mechanical properties influence jaw-muscle activity during mastication, very little effort has been made to quantify the relationship between the elicited masticatory responses of the subject and the mechanical properties of the foods that are eaten. Recent work on human mastication highlights the importance of two mechanical properties-toughness and elastic modulus (i.e., stiffness)-for food breakdown during mastication. Here we provide data on the toughness and elastic modulus of the majority of foods used in experimental studies of the nonhuman primate masticatory apparatus. Food toughness ranges from approximately 56.97 Jm(-2) (apple pulp) to 4355.45 Jm(-2) (prune pit). The elastic modulus of the experimental foods ranges from 0.07 MPa for gummy bears to 346 MPa for popcorn kernels. These data can help researchers studying primate mastication select among several potential foods with broadly similar mechanical properties. Moreover, they provide a framework for understanding how jaw-muscle activity varies with food mechanical properties in these studies.}, number={3}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY}, author={Williams, SH and Wright, BW and Den Truong, V and Daubert, CR and Vinyard, CJ}, year={2005}, month={Nov}, pages={329–346} }
 @article{resch_daubert_foegeding_2005, title={The effects of acidulant type on the rheological properties of beta-lactoglobulin gels and powders derived from these gels}, volume={19}, ISSN={["1873-7137"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foodhyd.2004.10.034}, abstractNote={Heat-induced beta-lactoglobulin (β-Lg) gels and instantly-thickening protein powders derived from these gels were rheologically characterized to identify how acid selection and pH adjustment impact whey protein gelation and derived powder properties. An established procedure for the production of an instant-thickening whey protein ingredient, consisting of protein hydration, pH adjustment to 3.35, thermal gelation at 80 °C, and drying, was applied to β-Lg. Hydrochloric, lactic, citric, and phosphoric acids were evaluated in the critical pH adjustment step. Acidulant selection clearly impacted β-Lg gelation and derived powder properties. Ion specific effects were in general agreement with classical Hofmeister series behavior. Maximum viscosity and water holding were observed in the ingredients derived from the strong, translucent gels created in systems utilizing lactic and hydrochloric acids. Use of citric acid resulted in a brittle, opaque coagulum which created an ingredient with very poor thickening functionality. Protein solutions treated with phosphoric acid were most resistant to gelation at 80 °C and led to limited thickening ability of the derived powder. Acidulant selection is an important processing parameter that may be manipulated to modify β-Lg gelation and the functional properties of derived thickening ingredients.}, number={5}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Resch, JJ and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2005}, month={Sep}, pages={851–860} }
 @article{resch_daubert_foegeding_2005, title={beta-lactoglobulin gelation and modification: Effect of selected acidulants and heating conditions}, volume={70}, ISSN={["1750-3841"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb09025.x}, abstractNote={: The effect of acidulant selection, heating temperature, and heating rate on the properties of low-pH β-lactoglobulin (β-Lg) gels and powders derived from these gels was investigated by rheological and microscopic techniques. As isothermal gelation temperature was increased from 75 to 85 °C, gels made with hydrochloric and lactic acid showed more rapid gel formation and increased stress at gel fracture. Thickening and water-holding properties of powders derived from these gels also increased with temperature. Increases in gel strength and derivatized powder functionality appeared to plateau above 85 °C. Gels and derivatized powders prepared with phosphoric acid exhibited attributes similar to samples prepared with HCl and lactic acid at lower temperatures. The ion-specific ability of phosphate to increase denaturation temperature was responsible for the shift in properties of gels made with phosphoric acid. Microscopy revealed temperature effects on network building block size, but variations in rheological properties could not be linked to changes in gel micrographs. Alteration of heating rates from 2.0 to 0.2 °C/min during gelation affected the observed gelation temperature, but had little effect on final gel mechanical properties. Acid selection and gelation temperature offer alternatives to control β-Lg gel strength and the functional properties of instant thickening protein ingredients.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Resch, JJ and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2005}, pages={C79–C86} }
 @article{resch_daubert_allen foegeding_2004, title={A comparison of drying operations on the rheological properties of whey protein thickening ingredients}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1365-2621"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00882.x}, abstractNote={SummaryAn existing procedure for the alteration of whey proteins into a cold‐set thickening agent was modified by developing a spray‐drying operation to replace the prohibitively expensive freeze‐drying step. The original and the modified derivatization procedures were used with a commercial whey protein concentrate (WPC). The freeze‐dried and spray‐dried derivatized WPC powders, along with polysaccharide thickeners, were reconstituted in water and evaluated by using a range of rheological studies. The effects of temperature, concentration, and shear on viscosity as well as the mechanical spectra were assessed to characterize the ability of the powders to function in food systems. Rheological characterization revealed the modified derivatization procedure yielded an ingredient having the same cold‐set thickening and gelling ability as the original derivatized powder. The modified whey proteins were also able to achieve, at higher usage levels, textural properties similar to several polysaccharide thickeners. Use of a spray‐drying technique created a more economical process for the production of a whey protein ingredient that was suitable for contributing viscosity and texture to a wide range of food systems.}, number={10}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY}, author={Resch, JJ and Daubert, CR and Allen Foegeding, E}, year={2004}, month={Dec}, pages={1023–1031} }
 @article{zhong_daubert_velev_2004, title={Cooling effects on a model rennet casein gel system: Part II. Permeability and microscopy}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0743-7463"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-4444266641&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1021/la036148o}, abstractNote={Microscopy and permeability studies were performed to further illustrate the cooling effects on rennet casein gel structure and help interpret the rheological observations in the first part of this paper. Samples of gels cooled from 80 to 5 degrees C at four rates (0.5, 0.1, 0.05, and 0.025 degrees C/min) were studied with a confocal laser scanning microscope. A larger number of smaller flocs were generated at slower cooling rates, creating more cross-links within a network and corresponding to a stronger gel. Formation of a larger number of smaller flocs was hypothesized to result from a greater degree of doublet formation because the system spent more time within the temperature region where doublet formation is favored when cooled at slower rates. The doublets represent sites available for floc growth, similar to nucleation sites for crystal growth. Microscopy results further substantiated that the cooling effects were different from the aging effects because cooling affected floc size, and aging enabled the addition of idle flocs into the casein network. The conclusions for the cooling effects on floc size were further supported by permeability tests. A smaller permeability coefficient resulted from smaller flocs obtained with a slower cooling schedule. This study showed the importance of controlling floc numbers to modulate the strength of a gel, and cooling rates provide an approach of modulating functional properties when the chemical composition of a system is fixed.}, number={18}, journal={LANGMUIR}, author={Zhong, QX and Daubert, CR and Velev, OD}, year={2004}, month={Aug}, pages={7406–7411} }
 @article{zhong_daubert_velev_2004, title={Cooling effects on a model rennet casein gel system: part I. Rheological characterization}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0743-7463"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-4444224511&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1021/la036147w}, abstractNote={The gelation of a model rennet casein system was studied during cooling at different rates. During cooling, casein network structure development was proposed to evolve over a few steps at different length scales: molecules, particles, flocs, or network. Rennet casein flocs are fractal in nature, and fractal dimension and floc size are two variables affecting the rheology and microstructure of a rennet casein gel. Casein structure formation during cooling from 80 to 5 degrees C at four different rates (0.5, 0.1, 0.05, and 0.025 degrees C/min) was monitored by dynamic rheological tests, and a stronger gel developed at a slower cooling rate. During different cooling schedules, similar fractal dimensions were observed due to a lack of difference in the colloidal interactions. Differences among rheological data were possibly caused by variability in floc size, as observed in the second part of this paper. A larger number of smaller-sized flocs enabled gelation at a higher temperature and created a stronger network at a slower cooling rate. Controlling cooling schemes thus provides an approach for manipulating casein gelation and the microstructure for a system of fixed chemical compositions.}, number={18}, journal={LANGMUIR}, author={Zhong, QX and Daubert, CR and Velev, OD}, year={2004}, month={Aug}, pages={7399–7405} }
 @article{zhong_daubert_farkas_2004, title={Cooling effects on processed cheese functionality}, volume={27}, ISSN={["1745-4530"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4530.2004.00390.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Textural and functional properties of processed cheese are affected by a final production step – cooling. Rheological data demonstrate a firmer cheese at slower cooling rates. To simulate industrial production, five‐pound cheese loaves were cooled in an environment at 5C under free and forced convection. Slice‐ability was estimated by cutting loaves at different locations using a wire‐cutting device, and melt‐ability was determined by the Schreiber method. Cooling rates, estimated from a heat transfer model, did not show a large difference within the five‐pound loaf, and no obvious trends in slice‐ability and melt‐ability were observed. Comparing forced with free convection, a smaller force was required to slice the cheese, and a higher melt score was experienced for the forced convection scenario. Cheese manufacturers can benefit from this research by manipulating cooling schedules to achieve desired textural attributes of processed cheese. }, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING}, author={Zhong, QX and Daubert, CR and Farkas, BE}, year={2004}, pages={392–412} }
 @article{zhong_daubert_2004, title={Kinetics of rennet casein gelation at different cooling rates}, volume={279}, ISSN={["1095-7103"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jcis.2004.06.059}, abstractNote={A mathematical model was developed to quantitatively analyze the rheological data of rennet casein gelation at different cooling rates. Kinetic parameters were estimated and correlated with the microstructure development of the protein network. The kinetic model identified structure development upon cooling to be first order, and the network forming energies were estimated for four protein concentrations cooled at four rates. A lower energy for network formation was observed for a slower cooling rate and a higher protein concentration. This observation resulted from the availability of more flocs at a slower cooling rate and a higher casein concentration, simplifying floc cross-linking. By analyzing the kinetics during the aging process of casein gels, no difference in the reaction mechanism was observed. This study illustrated that structure formation resulted from the addition of flocs into the protein network: not all flocs were part of the network at a defined gel point. The incubation period following cooling integrated idle flocs into the network, thereby strengthening the gel. By understanding the gelation mechanism during cooling of rennet casein gels, the structure and thus quality of dairy products, such as processed cheese, may be better controlled.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF COLLOID AND INTERFACE SCIENCE}, author={Zhong, Q and Daubert, CR}, year={2004}, month={Nov}, pages={88–94} }
 @article{pollen_daubert_prabhasankar_drake_gumpertz_2004, title={Quantifying fluid food texture}, volume={35}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2004.35515.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Instrumental and sensory methods were studied to quantify specific textural attributes of fluid foods. Of the numerous tests performed, instrumental and sensory analyses each identified appropriate techniques for viscosity and yield stress evaluation. Multivariate analyses showed good correlation between these select methods for instrumental and sensory viscosity (r = 0.90) and yield stress (r = 0.96). Individually, principal component analysis showed differentiation between viscosity and yield stress methods, indicating these properties measured separate textural attributes of fluid foods. Although viscosity and yield stress are not the sole properties comprising fluid food texture, in combination these properties provide a more complete description of fluid food texture.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Pollen, NR and Daubert, CR and Prabhasankar, R and Drake, MA and Gumpertz, ML}, year={2004}, pages={643–657} }
 @book{lee_greene_wellman_al._2004, title={Teaching and learning through inquiry: A guidebook for institutions and instructors}, publisher={Sterling, Va.: Stylus Pub.}, author={Lee, V. S. and Greene, D. B. and Wellman, D. J. and al.}, year={2004} }
 @article{glenn_daubert_2003, title={A mixer viscometry approach for blending devices}, volume={26}, ISSN={["1745-4530"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4530.2003.tb00586.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTThe Matching Stress Method is a mixer viscometry technique used to estimate mixer constants and viscosity using systems of complex geometry. Three Newtonian standards and three hydroxy‐propyl‐methyl‐cellulose (HPMC) solutions were used as model systems. to determine the mixer constants, a counter‐rotating, twin‐rotor blender was modified with a torque transducer and speed sensor installed between a drive shaft and a 0.75 hp (559.3 W) electrical motor. Mixer constants were determined using a concentric cylinder approximation of shear stress in an effort to match this approximation with shear stress measurements determined from a bench top rheometer. Mixer constants for the model systems ranged between 2.01 and 2.87 rad−1 with an average value of 2.57 rad−1 for all fluids. the results demonstrate a successful technique for providing accurate viscometric data during mixing processes. Such efforts could be followed to implement real time, quality control strategies and power estimation in scale‐up procedures.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING}, author={Glenn, TA and Daubert, CR}, year={2003}, month={Apr}, pages={1–16} }
 @article{glenn_daubert_farkas_stefanski_2003, title={A statistical analysis of creaming variables impacting process cheese melt quality}, volume={26}, ISSN={["0146-9428"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4557.2003.tb00247.x}, abstractNote={Abstract Although many variables influence the melt quality of finished processed cheese, this investigation focused on mechanical and thermal energy transport involved during the creaming process. To simulate commercial processing, a pilot scale 10‐gallon (0.04m3), dual ribbon blender was equipped with a thermal control system and a 0.75 hp (559.27 W) electrical motor. An experimental design consisted of three temperatures (75, 80, 85C), three mixing rates (50, 100,150 RPM), and six durations (1, 5, 10, 15, 25, 35 min). Quantified process variables included: process strain and thermal history, and total, instantaneous, and change in mechanical energy. The Schreiber melt test was used to examine the relationship between the processing parameters and melt performance. A statistical analysis revealed significant parameter estimates (P < 0.0001) for each quantified variable in a general linear model. The process cheese industry will gain insight into controlled manufacturing conditions to deliver desired melt functionality.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD QUALITY}, author={Glenn, TA and Daubert, CR and Farkas, BE and Stefanski, LA}, year={2003}, month={Oct}, pages={299–321} }
 @article{brown_foegeding_daubert_drake_gumpertz_2003, title={Relationships among rheological and sensorial properties of young cheeses}, volume={86}, ISSN={["0022-0302"]}, DOI={10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73905-8}, abstractNote={This study investigated the sensory and rheological properties of young cheeses in order to better understand perceived cheese texture. Mozzarella and Monterey Jacks were tested at 4, 10, 17, and 38 d of age; process cheese was tested at 4 d. Rheological methods were used to determine the linear and nonlinear viscoelastic and fracture properties. A trained sensory panel developed a descriptive language and reference scales to evaluate cheese texture. All methods differentiated the cheeses by variety. Principal component analysis of sensory texture revealed that three principal components explained 96.1% of the total variation in the cheeses. The perception of firmness decreased as the cheeses aged, whereas the perception of springiness increased. Principal component analysis of the rheological parameters (three principal components: 87.9% of the variance) showed that the cheeses' solid-like response (storage modulus and fracture modulus) decreased during aging, while phase angle, maximum compliance, and retardation time increased. Analysis of the instrumental and sensory parameters (three principal components: 82.1% of the variance) revealed groupings of parameters according to cheese rigidity, resiliency, and chewdown texture. Rheological properties were highly associated with rigidity and resiliency, but less so with chewdown texture.}, number={10}, journal={JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE}, author={Brown, JA and Foegeding, EA and Daubert, CR and Drake, MA and Gumpertz, M}, year={2003}, month={Oct}, pages={3054–3067} }
 @article{leach_farkas_daubert_2003, title={Rheological characterization of process cheese using tube viscometry}, volume={6}, ISSN={["1094-2912"]}, DOI={10.1081/JFP-120017847}, abstractNote={Abstract A rheological characterization of process cheese mix was performed using tube viscometry techniques at 15, 20, 25, and 30°C over the approximate shear rate range of 5–35 s−1. The shear rate range was chosen to correspond with a range germane to pilot scale process cheese production. As expected, the cheese mixture was shear thinning. Additionally, the viscosity of cheese mix substantially decreased as temperature increased, with a near tenfold decrease in viscosity from 15 to 30°C. At a shear rate of 7.5 s−1, the viscosity of the mixture at 15°C was 936.8 Pa s, while the viscosity at 30°C was 112.7 Pa s. Power law models were developed for each temperature. Generalized models for predicting apparent viscosity as a function of temperature and shear rate were developed using both a multiple linear regression equation and a modified Arrhenius‐type equation. The tube viscometry technique and subsequent models have applications to the prediction of flow behavior of highly viscous materials to aid in food process design. #Approved as Paper No. FSR 02‐14 of the Department of Food Science Journal Series.}, number={2}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES}, author={Leach, MR and Farkas, BE and Daubert, CR}, year={2003}, pages={259–267} }
 @article{lowe_foegeding_daubert_2003, title={Rheological properties of fine-stranded whey protein isolate gels}, volume={17}, ISSN={["0268-005X"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0268-005X(03)00014-6}, abstractNote={The rheological and fracture properties of fine stranded WPI gels were determined over a range of shear strain rates (0.014–0.69 s−1). All gels had the highest fracture strain when deformed at a strain rate of 0.014 s−1. Fracture stress was relatively constant over all strain rates. These effects were observed at all protein concentrations and suggest a link with molecular or network relaxations. The apparent modulus (stress/strain at any level of strain) exhibited decreasing or linear behavior at low to moderate strains, followed by non-linear strain-hardening behavior at higher strains. As strain rate increased, the gels displayed increased non-linear behavior. The strain where the modulus switched from linear to non-linear behavior decreased as protein concentration or strain rate was increased. Therefore, both strain rate and protein concentration affect the large-strain viscoelastic behavior of WPI gels during deformation and fracture. This observation suggests a link with the molecular relaxation processes occurring in the gel network.}, number={4}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Lowe, LL and Foegeding, EA and Daubert, CR}, year={2003}, month={Jul}, pages={515–522} }
 @article{foegeding_brown_drake_daubert_2003, title={Sensory and mechanical aspects of cheese texture}, volume={13}, ISSN={["0958-6946"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0958-6946(03)00094-3}, abstractNote={Producing high quality dairy products requires precise control over factors determining product appearance, flavor and texture. Food texture is analyzed by descriptive sensory analysis. This method uses terms that depict the textural sensations perceived from first bite through mastication and swallowing. One component of sensory texture is mechanical properties, which are determined by empirical or fundamental methods. However, if one wants to understand the molecular basis of texture, then fundamental tests are required. Fundamental rheological properties are linked to network models, such as those for rubber elasticity or filled gels. These models predict how network interactions will alter rheological properties, providing a link from molecular interactions to sensory texture. In general, sensory and rheological terms that relate to the overall firmness and resiliency of cheese are highly correlated. However, sensory terms that describe the breakdown pattern, adhesiveness and cohesiveness of cheese, are weakly, if at all, correlated with rheological properties.}, number={8}, journal={INTERNATIONAL DAIRY JOURNAL}, author={Foegeding, EA and Brown, J and Drake, M and Daubert, CR}, year={2003}, pages={585–591} }
 @article{hudson_daubert_2002, title={Functionality comparison between derivatized whey proteins and a pregelatinized starch}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1745-4603"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2002.tb01351.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTA process has been patented to produce stabilizing ingredients from whey proteins which are applicable over a wide range of typical food conditions and do not require heat or the addition of salts to induce thickening functionality. Once reconstituted in deionized water, solutions were evaluated and compared with water holding performance and rheological attributes of a pregelatinized cornstarch. Rotational viscometry was performed at pH values between 3 and 8, temperatures between 5 and 90C, and shear rates between 1 and 100 s−1. Derivatized whey protein powders and pregelatinized starch displayed pseudo‐plastic behavior under shear at all temperatures tested. During temperature ramps from 5 to 90C, derivatized whey protein flow properties were essentially unchanged by varying pH. However, viscosity after the temperature increase was higher than initial values, possibly due to additional protein denaturation and hydrophobic interactions. Derivatized powders were stable and retained desired functionality over a wide range of food processing and preparation conditions and may therefore possess applicability to many products currently utilizing modified starches or hydrocolloids to texturize.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Hudson, HM and Daubert, CR}, year={2002}, month={Oct}, pages={297–314} }
 @article{pernell_luck_foegeding_daubert_2002, title={Heat-induced changes in angel food cakes containing egg-white protein or whey protein isolate}, volume={67}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0036812822&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb08843.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:  Angel food cakes made from egg white or whey protein foams were compared. Cakes were evaluated based on final volume, dynamic volume change, and rheological transitions during baking. Cake expansion during baking was a function of protein concentration regardless of protein type. Cakes containing whey proteins had a lower ability to prevent collapse once starch gelatinization started during baking. Heat‐treating whey proteins or adding xanthan gum increases cake volume, but not to the extent of egg‐white proteins. Cakes containing egg‐white proteins became more elastic at 60 to 85 °C than those containing whey proteins, indicating physical differences in the heat‐set protein foam network associated with protein type.}, number={8}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Pernell, CW and Luck, PJ and Foegeding, EA and Daubert, CR}, year={2002}, month={Oct}, pages={2945–2951} }
 @article{resch_daubert_2002, title={Rheological and physicochemical properties of derivatized whey protein concentrate powders}, volume={5}, ISSN={["1532-2386"]}, DOI={10.1081/JFP-120005795}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT The gelling ability of whey proteins provides important textural and water holding properties in many foods. However, because many products cannot be heated to the temperature needed for thermal gelation of whey proteins, cold-set gelation of whey proteins could be very advantageous to the food industry. A derivatization procedure for the production of a cold gelling whey protein isolate (WPI) consisting of protein hydration, pH adjustment, thermal gelation, freeze drying, and milling was applied to three commercial whey protein concentrates (WPC). The resulting derivatized WPC powders were reconstituted in water and evaluated through a range of rheological and physical property studies. The effects of temperature, concentration, and shear on viscosity as well as water holding capacity and intrinsic viscosity were assessed. Although the composition of the starting materials influenced the functionality of the final derivatized powders, all samples exhibited a dramatic increase in thickening and water holding ability. All samples were able to form cold-set weak gel structures suitable for contributing viscosity and texture to a wide range of food systems.}, number={2}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES}, author={Resch, JJ and Daubert, CR}, year={2002}, pages={419–434} }
 @article{vais_palazoglu_sandeep_daubert_2002, title={Rheological characterization of carboxymethylcellulose solution under aseptic processing conditions}, volume={25}, ISSN={["1745-4530"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4530.2002.tb00555.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTThe rheology of Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) solutions, which are widely used as carrier fluids in aseptic processing simulations, was studied. Effects such as time dependency, recovery, and viscoelasticity were studied. A model was developed to determine the apparent viscosity of CMC solutions as a function of shear rate, temperature, and concentration. The model can be used in process design from both a fluid mechanics standpoint and a heat transfer standpoint. It was found that the solutions behaved as pseudoplastic fluids that were irreversibly thixotropic and also viscoelastic.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING}, author={Vais, AE and Palazoglu, TK and Sandeep, KP and Daubert, CR}, year={2002}, month={Apr}, pages={41–61} }
 @article{anderson_daubert_farkas_2002, title={Rheological characterization of skim milk stabilized with carrageenan at high temperatures}, volume={67}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb10654.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:  Superpositioning principles were applied twice to model temperature (25 to 125 °C) and concentration (0.005 to 0.040% w/w) effects on skim milk and carrageenan solutions. Samples were analyzed using a controlled stress rheometer equipped with a pressurized sealed cell, permitting measurements well above standard boiling conditions. Individual samples were sheared between 10 and 160 s−1, and predictive equations were developed to predict Newtonian viscosity as a function of temperature and carrageenan concentration. The superpositioning technique coupled with advancements in rheological instrumentation permits high temperature measurements and offers a strategy for viscosity determination for thermal processing unit operations.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Anderson, AD and Daubert, CR and Farkas, BE}, year={2002}, month={Mar}, pages={649–652} }
 @article{truong_daubert_2003, title={Rheological methods for assessment of food freshness and stability}, volume={836}, DOI={10.1021/bk-2003-0836.ch019}, abstractNote={Food rheology is considered the material science for food systems. Rheological approaches to shelf-life and freshness may range from a simple squeezing technique to advanced oscillatory methodologies probing material microstructure. As rheology relates to consumer perceptions of quality and freshness, a more common sensory term, texture, is employed. Changes in texture and stability during storage have been recognized as important factors influencing consumer acceptability of many food products. Texture is a complex attribute of food quality and can only be measured directly by sensory evaluation. However, many instrumental methods are used to measure mechanical properties of foods that are, up to a certain extent, related to sensory characteristics. Large strain methods such as puncture, penetration, bending, tension, shear, compression, and texture profile analysis are commonly used to evaluate freshness and textural changes of foods with respect to storage conditions. For fluid foods, various rheological techniques evaluate yield stress and shear viscosity, providing information about pourability, thickness, and dispersion or emulsion stability over time. Small strain methods, specifically dynamic oscillatory shear and mechanical analyses, are useful in probing microstructure, viscoelastic properties, and phase transitions in food materials. This chapter reviews rheological methods applicable to assessment of freshness and textural stability of foods.}, journal={Freshness and shelf life of foods}, publisher={Washington, DC: American Chemical Society}, author={Truong, V. D. and Daubert, C. R.}, editor={K. R. Cadwallader, H. WeenenEditor}, year={2003}, pages={248–268} }
 @article{truong_daubert_drake_baxter_2002, title={Vane rheometry for textural characterization of cheddar cheeses: Correlation with other instrumental and sensory measurements}, volume={35}, ISSN={["0023-6438"]}, DOI={10.1006/fstl.2001.0872}, abstractNote={Abstract The relationship between instrumental (vane method, texture profile analysis (TPA), uniaxial compression) and sensory texture measurements of Cheddar cheeses was investigated. A Haake VT 550 viscotester equipped with a four-bladed vane rotor was used for the vane test. Instrumental TPA was performed with a TA.XT2 Texture Analyser, and compression variables were calculated from TPA data. Vane parameters were significantly correlated with respective variables of compression and TPA ( r =0.56–0.91), and sensory tests ( r =0.54–0.88). Multivariate analysis indicated that seven sensory attributes of ten commercial Cheddar cheeses were satisfactorily predicted (calibration regression coefficient, R cal >0.62) by variables of the vane, uniaxial compression and TPA tests. In particular, cheese firmness and cohesiveness evaluated by sensory panel were well described by vane stress and apparent strain. The results validate the vane method as an alternative to the existing cheese testing methods for rapid evaluation of cheese texture.}, number={4}, journal={LEBENSMITTEL-WISSENSCHAFT UND-TECHNOLOGIE-FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY}, author={Truong, VD and Daubert, CR and Drake, MA and Baxter, SR}, year={2002}, pages={305–314} }
 @article{luck_lanier_daubert_kwanyuen_2002, title={Viscoelastic behavior of commercially processed soy isolate pastes during heating and cooling}, volume={67}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0036293043&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb10293.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTThe viscoelastic properties of soy isolate dispersions of Prolina and Brim cultivars, commercially processed, were compared during heating and cooling utilizing small deformation rheology. All isolates formed gels upon hydration. Heating to 90 °C yielded less rigid gels, as evidenced by a decreasing G'. Holding at 90 °C induced an increase in G' for Brim isolate, possibly as a result of increased hydrophobic and/or covalent bonding. Cooling to 25 °C generated a G' increase above initial levels for both cultivars, likely due to enhanced intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Mechanical spectra at 25 °C before and after heating, and at 90 °C before and after holding, confirmed these observations. A lower G' was consistently exhibited by Prolina gels throughout testing.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Luck, PJ and Lanier, TC and Daubert, CR and Kwanyuen, P}, year={2002}, month={May}, pages={1379–1382} }
 @article{vardhanabhuti_foegeding_mcguffey_daubert_swaisgood_2001, title={Gelation properties of dispersions containing polymerized and native whey protein isolate}, volume={15}, ISSN={["1873-7137"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0268-005X(00)00062-X}, abstractNote={Whey protein polymers (WP-polymers) were prepared by heating whey protein isolate below the critical concentration for gelation at neutral pH and low salt conditions. The effects of WP-polymers and salt types (CaCl2 or NaCl) on rheological properties (large-strain and small-strain analysis), water holding properties, turbidity and microstructure of heat-induced whey protein isolate gels were investigated. Replacement of native whey protein isolate with WP-polymers increased fracture stress, fracture modulus, held water, and the translucency of gels. With both salt types, the addition of WP-polymers changed the gel structure from particulate to fine-stranded. However, the effect of WP-polymers on rheological properties was salt specific. Addition of 20–100% WP-polymers in the presence of 10 mM CaCl2 caused a continued increase in fracture stress. In contrast, protein dispersions containing 30 mM NaCl did not form self-supporting gels when ≥60% WP-polymers were added. Dispersions containing 200 mM NaCl formed self supporting gels at all levels of WP-polymer addition but fracture stresses for gels containing 20–100% WP were similar. Dispersions containing 80% WP-polymers and 200 mM NaCl had lower gel points (time and temperature) than dispersions with 80% WP-polymers and 10 mM CaCl2. It appeared that CaCl2 was more effective in increasing gel fracture stress while NaCl was more effective in decreasing gelation time. Different gel properties may be prepared by altering the amount of WP-polymers and salt types.}, number={2}, journal={FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS}, author={Vardhanabhuti, B and Foegeding, EA and McGuffey, MK and Daubert, CR and Swaisgood, HE}, year={2001}, month={Mar}, pages={165–175} }
 @article{truong_daubert_2001, title={Textural characterization of cheeses using vane rheometry and torsion analysis}, volume={66}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2001.tb04627.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Vane rheometry was applied to textural characterization of cheeses and compared with torsion analysis. A Haake VT 550 viscotester was used for both vane and torsion tests at strain rates of 0.003 to 0.524 s‐1. Angular deformation and shear stress in the vane test increased with increasing low strain rate and was rate independent at higher rates. This shear rate dependency of stress and deformation varied with cheese types. Shear stresses from the vane method were lower than torsion shear stresses. Similar texture maps of cheeses were generated by plotting stress and strain or angular deformation values from the 2 testing methods. The findings indicate the vane technique can be used for rapid textural characterization of cheeses.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Truong, VD and Daubert, CR}, year={2001}, pages={716–721} }
 @misc{hudson_daubert_foegeding_2001, title={Thermal and PH stable protein thickening agent and method of making the same}, volume={6,261,624}, number={2001 July 17}, publisher={Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office}, author={Hudson, H. M. and Daubert, C. R. and Foegeding, E. A.}, year={2001} }
 @article{truong_daubert_2000, title={Comparative study of large strain methods for assessing failure characteristics of selected food gels}, volume={31}, ISSN={["0022-4901"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.2000.tb00294.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTVane rheometry was compared with uniaxial compression and torsion in evaluating the effects of strain rate on failure shear stress and deformation of soybean protein (tofu) and gellan gum gels. A Haake VT 550 viscotester was used for torsion and vane tests, and compression was performed with an Instron/MTS universal testing machine. Strain or angular deformation at failure was independent of strain rate in the three testing modes. In vane rheometry, failure shear stress increased with increasing low shear rates (< 0.100 s−1) and was rate independent at higher rates. This strain rate dependency was also evident in compression, varying with the material. For torsion, fracture stress appeared to be rate independent. Shear fracture stresses measured in torsion and compression were in good agreement at strain rates above 0.025 s−1 and 0.100 s−1 for tofu and gellan gels, respectively. Shear stresses from the vane method were lower than shear stresses of torsion and compression. Similar texture maps of the food gels studied were generated by plotting stress and strain or angular deformation values of the three testing methods. The findings validate the vane technique as an alternative to torsion and compression for rapid textural characterization of viscoelastic foods.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Truong, VD and Daubert, CR}, year={2000}, month={Sep}, pages={335–353} }
 @article{pernell_foegeding_daubert_2000, title={Measurement of the yield stress of protein foams by vane rheometry}, volume={65}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb15964.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT:The yield stresses of protein foams made from varying protein types (spray dried egg white and whey protein isolate), protein concentrations, whip times, and mixer models were evaluated using vane rheometry. Two methods of analysis (point and slope methods) were investigated. Yield stress values determined by slope and point methods were similar for egg white protein foams but did not agree in the analysis of whey protein foams. Point method values were very reproducible in all foams tested. Egg white protein solutions formed stiffer foams more rapidly and at lower protein concentrations than foams made from whey protein isolate. Vane rheometry was shown to be a reliable method of determining yield stress in protein foams.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Pernell, CW and Foegeding, EA and Daubert, CR}, year={2000}, pages={110–114} }
 @article{hudson_daubert_foegeding_2000, title={Rheological and physical properties of derivitized whey protein isolate powders}, volume={48}, ISSN={["0021-8561"]}, DOI={10.1021/jf990906s}, abstractNote={Pregelatinized starch is employed in many food applications due to the instantaneous nature of thickening and stability imparted by modification. Proteins, however, have been excluded as a viscosifying agent due to requisite thermal treatments required to create structure. Whey protein isolate gels were produced while manipulating heating time, pH, and mineral type/content, producing a variety of gel types/networks. Gels were frozen, freeze-dried, and ground into a powder. Once reconstituted in deionized water, gel powders were evaluated based on solubility studies, rotational viscometry, and electrophoresis. The protein powder exhibiting the largest apparent viscosity, highest degree of hydrolysis, and greatest solubility was selected for pH and temperature stability analyses and small amplitude oscillatory rheology. This processing technique manipulates WPI into a product capable of forming cold-set weak gel structures suitable for thickening over a wide range of temperature and pH food systems.}, number={8}, journal={JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY}, author={Hudson, HM and Daubert, CR and Foegeding, EA}, year={2000}, month={Aug}, pages={3112–3119} }
 @article{hudson_daubert_mills_2000, title={The interdependency of protein-energy malnutrition, aging, and dysphagia}, volume={15}, ISSN={["1432-0460"]}, DOI={10.1007/s004559910007}, abstractNote={Advancing age is increasingly associated with confounding chronic and acute ailments, predisposing elderly individuals to conditions such as malnutrition and swallowing dysfunction. This enhanced susceptibility to malnutrition and dysphagia in this aging demographic lends itself to exacerbating, disabling conditions that may result in increased morbidity and mortality in the event of an aspiration episode. Early identification of substandard nutritional status and subsequent interventiion in the elderly dysphagic population may circumvent the deleterious effects of malnutrition.}, number={1}, journal={DYSPHAGIA}, author={Hudson, HM and Daubert, CR and Mills, RH}, year={2000}, pages={31–38} }
 @article{drake_gerard_truong_daubert_1999, title={Relationship between instrumental and sensory measurements of cheese texture}, volume={30}, ISSN={["0022-4901"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.1999.tb00230.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTThe relationship between sensory and instrumental texture measurements of natural and processed cheeses was studied. A descriptive analysis panel evaluated seven mouth‐evaluated and five hand‐evaluated texture terms. Instrumental measurements included texture profile analysis (TPA), frequency sweeps, and creep. Multivariate analyses showed that many of the sensory and instrumental analyses were highly correlated. Principal component analysis showed similarities and differences in how the cheeses were differentiated by sensory and instrumental techniques. TPA and fundamental rheological tests worked equally well at predicting sensory attributes of the cheeses, but TPA was better at predicting sensory attributes when cheeses were divided into two groups, natural and processed. Instrumental measurements predicted sensory attributes of processed cheeses better than natural cheeses. While fundamental rheological tests reveal important information on network structure and molecular arrangement, these results indicate that empirical texture evaluations work equally well or better at predicting sensory texture properties.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Drake, MA and Gerard, PD and Truong, VD and Daubert, CR}, year={1999}, month={Oct}, pages={451–476} }
 @article{drake_truong_daubert_1999, title={Rheological and sensory properties of reduced-fat processed cheeses containing lecithin}, volume={64}, ISSN={["0022-1147"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2621.1999.tb15123.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTReduced fat processed cheeses were prepared with granular or hydrogenated soy lecithin. Trained sensory panelists (n = 11) determined that reduced‐fat cheeses containing lecithin were more similar in texture attributes to full‐fat control cheeses than reduced fat cheeses without lecithin (P<0.05). Consumer flavor and acceptance scores (n =60) for cheeses with lecithin were not different from control cheeses, but texture acceptance scores for cheeses with lecithin were higher than scores for reduced fat control cheeses (P.0.05). Cheeses containing lecithin were less elastic than reduced fat control cheeses as determined by sensory panels and instrumental percent creep recovery. Lecithin improved processed cheese texture without negatively affecting acceptance.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE}, author={Drake, MA and Truong, VD and Daubert, CR}, year={1999}, pages={744–747} }
 @article{daubert_steffe_srivastava_1998, title={Predicting the electrorheological behavior of milk chocolate}, volume={21}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4530.1998.tb00450.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTElectrorheology is the study of the effects of electric fields on the flow properties of fluids. These materials generally exhibit an increase in apparent viscosity and a greater yield stress over an unelectrified sample. The phenomenon requires an electric field and polar particles suspended in an insulating oil. A standard concentric cylinder viscometer, fitted with custom made electrical attachments, was converted into an electrorheometer. This system allowed control of DC voltage (0–450 Volts mm−1), fluid temperature (35C–40.5C), and shear rate (0.022 s−1– 8.744 s−1) while observing the resulting effects on the shear stress. Dimensional analysis was used to study the rheological response of milk chocolate when subjected to electric fields. Dimensionless groups were identified to explain the phenomena, and multiple regression analysis was used to predict the electrorheological flow behavior of milk chocolate. Over the ranges of input variables, the electric field‐induced forces dominated the rheological response over thermal forces, and a prediction equation for apparent viscosity was developed as a function of electric field strength and shear rate. This mathematical expression allows for prediction of milk chocolate rheology in the presence of an electric field.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Food Process Engineering}, author={Daubert, C. R. and Steffe, J. F. and Srivastava, A. K.}, year={1998}, pages={249–261} }
 @article{daubert_tkachuk_truong_1998, title={Quantitative measurement of food spreadability using the vane method}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0022-4901"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4603.1998.tb00814.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTThis study was performed to describe an application of the vane method for the rapid, quantitative measurement of spreadability, a subjective, textural property. Yield points of thirteen commercial food items were determined and related to spreadability using models HBTDV‐I and 5X HBTDV‐I Brookfield viscometers equipped with three different vanes. Spreadability strongly impacts consumer approval of a food. This textural property has been linked to the yield stress of a material, but observations support that strain at yielding may also be important. A textural map, showing yield stress and yield strain of the selected foods was created to chart regions of spreadability.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF TEXTURE STUDIES}, author={Daubert, CR and Tkachuk, JA and Truong, VD}, year={1998}, month={Oct}, pages={427–435} }
 @article{daubert_steffe_lloyd_1997, title={Electric field effects on the thermal conductivity of milk chocolate determined using the ''mirror image method''}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0145-8876"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-4530.1997.tb00412.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTElectrorheological fluids exhibit changes in flow properties when exposed to an electric field. Generally, these fluids display an increase in apparent viscosity and a greater yield stress in the presence of a voltage. Another attribute of some electrorheological fluids is the ability to enhance heat transfer, allowing for greater control over heating and cooling unit operations. This paper examined the effects of an applied voltage on the thermal conductivity of molten milk chocolate, a material known to be an electrorheological fluid. The method used to measure the thermal property was based on the “mirror image’ concept. In this technique, identical disks sandwich a heat source providing a constant heat flux directed evenly between the two sides. Knowing the heat flux and the boundary temperatures of the sample gap, an analytical solution was used to calculate the thermal conductivity and specific heat. An applied electric field of up to 450 V mm−1 at 60 Hz was found to have no significant effect on the heat transfer properties of milk chocolate. The thermal conductivity was found to have an average value of 0.163 W m−1 K−1 over a temperature range varying from 25 to 60C. The measurement technique, however, proved to be a rapid method for determining thermal properties that may be useful in investigating other liquid foods.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING}, author={Daubert, CR and Steffe, JF and Lloyd, JR}, year={1997}, month={Feb}, pages={77–89} }