@article{workman_stoler_harris_ercumen_kearns_mapunda_2021, title={Food, water, and sanitation insecurities: Complex linkages and implications for achieving WASH security}, volume={9}, ISSN={["1744-1706"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2021.1971735}, DOI={10.1080/17441692.2021.1971735}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Food, water and sanitation insecurities are complex, multi-dimensional phenomena that entail more than availability and access; food, water, and sanitation resources must be safe and culturally appropriate. Researchers and implementers concerned with these insecurities have demonstrated that there are notable interactions between them resulting in significant psychological and biological outcomes. Recent randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in Bangladesh, Kenya (WASH Benefits) and Zimbabwe (SHINE) demonstrated no effect from water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions on linear growth, and mixed evidence on enteropathogen burden and risk of diarrhoea in young children. These data suggest a need for a more comprehensive understanding of WASH security. The risks posed by multiple resource insecurities shift depending on the individual, their movement throughout their day, their economically and socially prescribed roles, and ecological features such as seasonality and precipitation. By more fully integrating food, water and sanitation security in interventions and subsequent impact evaluations, we can achieve WASH security—one that addresses myriad transmission pathways and co-occurring diseases—that ultimately would improve health outcomes throughout the world. In this critical review, we outline the complexity of combined resource insecurities as a step towards transformative WASH.}, journal={GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH}, author={Workman, Cassandra L. and Stoler, Justin and Harris, Angela and Ercumen, Ayse and Kearns, Joshua and Mapunda, Kenneth M.}, year={2021}, month={Sep} }
 @article{workman_cairns_reyes_verbyla_2021, title={Global Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Approaches: Anthropological Contributions and Future Directions for Engineering}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1557-9018"]}, url={https://publons.com/wos-op/publon/47014418/}, DOI={10.1089/ees.2020.0321}, abstractNote={Anthropologists contribute key insights toward a comprehensive understanding of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) as a multidimensional, multiscalar, and culturally embedded phenomenon. Yet, these insights have yet to be sufficiently operationalized and implemented in WASH development and wider WASH access-related paradigms. Ensuring WASH security requires a comprehensive approach to identifying both human health risk and environmental impact of WASH-related programs and strategies. It requires an understanding of how sanitation is integrated into households and communities and how individuals within particular cultural contexts practice sanitation and hygiene. This work facilitates that goal by outlining the major contributions of anthropology and allied social sciences to WASH, as well as outlining key considerations for future work and collaboration. We identify six major themes that, if applied in future engineering approaches, will more equitably integrate stakeholders and multiple vantage points in the successful implementation of WASH projects for marginalized and diverse groups. These include a critical understanding of previous approaches, culturally aware interventions, capacity building that considers (un)intended impact, co-created technology, collaboration between fields such as anthropology and engineering, and challenge-ready initiatives that respond to historic and emergent social and environmental inequity.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE}, author={Workman, Cassandra L. and Cairns, Maryann R. and Reyes, Francis L. de los, III and Verbyla, Matthew E.}, year={2021}, month={May}, pages={402–417} }
 @article{workman_2021, title={Syndemics and global health}, url={https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01249-8}, DOI={10.1038/s41562-021-01249-8}, abstractNote={Syndemic theory considers how social inequalities drive disease interaction. A new study uses a mixed-methods approach to examine how stress interacts with multiple diseases to affect quality of life in Soweto, South Africa.}, journal={Nature Human Behaviour}, author={Workman, Cassandra L.}, year={2021}, month={Dec} }
 @article{young_collins_boateng_neilands_jamaluddine_miller_brewis_frongillo_jepson_melgar-quiñonez_et al._2019, title={Development and validation protocol for an instrument to measure household water insecurity across cultures and ecologies: the Household Water InSecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale}, volume={9}, ISSN={2044-6055 2044-6055}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023558}, DOI={10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023558}, abstractNote={IntroductionA wide range of water-related problems contribute to the global burden of disease. Despite the many plausible consequences for health and well-being, there is no validated tool to measure individual- or household-level water insecurity equivalently across varying cultural and ecological settings. Accordingly, we are developing the Household Water Insecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale to measure household-level water insecurity in multiple contexts.}, number={1}, journal={BMJ Open}, publisher={BMJ}, author={Young, Sera L and Collins, Shalean M and Boateng, Godfred O and Neilands, Torsten B and Jamaluddine, Zeina and Miller, Joshua D and Brewis, Alexandra A and Frongillo, Edward A and Jepson, Wendy E and Melgar-Quiñonez, Hugo and et al.}, year={2019}, month={Jan}, pages={e023558} }
 @article{workman_2019, title={Ebbs and Flows of Authority: Decentralization, Development and the Hydrosocial Cycle in Lesotho}, volume={11}, ISSN={2073-4441}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11020184}, DOI={10.3390/w11020184}, abstractNote={Dominant development discourse holds that water scarcity reflects geophysical limitations, lack of infrastructure or lack of government provision. However, this paper outlines the ways in which scarcity can only be fully explained in the context of development, specifically, neoliberal economic policies and related notions of good governance. Water is Lesotho’s primary natural resource, yet many of its inhabitants remain severely water insecure. Presently, decentralization and Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) are embraced in Lesotho as a philosophy and method to engage varied stakeholders and to empower community members. Using a water committee in Qalo, Lesotho as a case study, this paper explores the micro-politics of water governance. As individuals contest who is responsible for managing water resources for the village—by aligning themselves with traditional chiefs, elected officials, or neither—they transform or reinforce specific hydro-social configurations. While decentralized resource management aims to increase equity and local ownership over resources, as well as moderate the authority of traditional chiefs, water access is instead impacted by conflicts over management responsibility for water resources. Drawing on theories of political ecology and governmentality to extend recent scholarship on IWRM, this paper re-centers the political in water governance by situating local tensions within national policies and development agendas and demonstrating how scarcity is hydro-social.}, number={2}, journal={Water}, publisher={MDPI AG}, author={Workman, Cassandra L.}, year={2019}, month={Jan}, pages={184} }
 @article{workman_2019, title={Perceptions of drinking water cleanliness and health-seeking behaviours: A qualitative assessment of household water safety in Lesotho, Africa}, volume={1}, url={https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2019.1566483}, DOI={10.1080/17441692.2019.1566483}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Despite the increased availability of improved water sources globally, enteric illnesses remain a source of significant morbidity and mortality. While the MDGs goal for safe water, i.e. improved sources, was met, substantial numbers of people still rely on unimproved sources for at least some of their water needs and contamination can occur between the source and consumption. Reviews and meta-analyses point to the need for better understanding of the cultural context for (HWT) technologies. Qualitative interviews (n = 56) conducted in the Maseru District of Lesotho (2011) addressed how people decided if their water was safe, their understanding of the linkage between water and enteric illness, and health-seeking behaviour. Respondents overwhelmingly relied on visual inspections to determine if their water was clean and not all participants linked consuming unsafe water with diarrheal disease. More than half of all respondents did not boil their water, despite believing that their primary source was not clean. People often have the knowledge necessary to ensure safe water but do not for myriad reasons, including financial constraints or habit. Data such as these are critical as the literature reveals often conflicting findings about the effectiveness of HWT and water safety takes on increasing importance in syndemic settings.}, journal={Global Public Health}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Workman, Cassandra L.}, year={2019}, month={Sep}, pages={1–13} }
 @article{brewis_rosinger_wutich_adams_cronk_pearson_workman_young_2019, title={Water sharing, reciprocity, and need: A comparative study of interhousehold water transfers in sub-Saharan Africa}, volume={1}, ISSN={2330-4847}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sea2.12143}, DOI={10.1002/sea2.12143}, abstractNote={Water sharing between households could crucially mitigate short‐term household water shortages, yet it is a vastly understudied phenomenon. Here we use comparative survey data from eight sites in seven sub‐Saharan African countries (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda) to answer three questions: With whom do households share water? What is expected in return? And what roles do need and affordability play in shaping those transfers? We find that water is shared predominantly between neighbors, that transfers are more frequent when water is less available and less affordable, and that most sharing occurs with no expectation of direct payback. These findings identify water sharing, as a form of generalized reciprocity, to be a basic and consistent household coping strategy against shortages and unaffordability of water in sub‐Saharan Africa.}, journal={Economic Anthropology}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Brewis, Alexandra and Rosinger, Asher and Wutich, Amber and Adams, Ellis and Cronk, Lee and Pearson, Amber and Workman, Cassandra and Young, Sera}, year={2019}, month={Jan} }
 @article{wutich_budds_jepson_harris_adams_brewis_cronk_demyers_maes_marley_et al._2018, title={Household water sharing: A review of water gifts, exchanges, and transfers across cultures}, volume={5}, ISSN={2049-1948}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1309}, DOI={10.1002/wat2.1309}, abstractNote={Water sharing offers insight into the everyday and, at times, invisible ties that bind people and households with water and to one another. Water sharing can take many forms, including so‐called “pure gifts,” balanced exchanges, and negative reciprocity. In this study, we examine water sharing between households as a culturally embedded practice that may be both need‐based and symbolically meaningful. Drawing on a wide‐ranging review of diverse literatures, we describe how households practice water sharing cross‐culturally in the context of four livelihood strategies (hunter‐gatherer, pastoralist, agricultural, and urban). We then explore how cross‐cutting material conditions (risks and costs/benefits, infrastructure and technologies), socioeconomic processes (social and political power, water entitlements, ethnicity and gender, territorial sovereignty), and cultural norms (moral economies of water, water ontologies, and religious beliefs) shape water sharing practices. Finally, we identify five new directions for future research on water sharing: conceptualization of water sharing; exploitation and status accumulation through water sharing, biocultural approaches to the health risks and benefits of water sharing, cultural meanings and socioeconomic values of waters shared; and water sharing as a way to enact resistance and build alternative economies.}, number={6}, journal={Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Wutich, Amber and Budds, Jessica and Jepson, Wendy and Harris, Leila M. and Adams, Ellis and Brewis, Alexandra and Cronk, Lee and DeMyers, Christine and Maes, Kenneth and Marley, Tennille and et al.}, year={2018}, month={Sep}, pages={e1309} }
 @article{cairns_workman_tandon_2017, title={Gender mainstreaming and water development projects: analyzing unexpected enviro-social impacts in Bolivia, India, and Lesotho,Transversalización del género y proyectos de desarrollo hídrico: análisis de impactos socioambientales inesperados en Bolivia, India y Lesoto}, volume={24}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-85019553901&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1080/0966369X.2017.1314945}, abstractNote={Abstract Gender mainstreaming policies and programs, meant to be gender-sensitive or to target gender issues, are increasingly implemented by both governmental and non-governmental actors. However, these projects seem set to continually aim solely at women, despite more than a decade of work encouraging broader scope. Using recent case studies from Bolivia, Lesotho, and India, we address the tensions laden in three major questions about water, gender, and development: (1) Is mandatory inclusion of women in water governance and decision-making effective?, (2) Do water development projects provide equal benefits and burdens for women and men?, and (3) In what ways are water projects and their policies impacting and impacted by gendered enviro-social spaces? By providing triangulated data from ethnographic studies in three distinct local contexts, we are able to pinpoint major cross-cutting themes that serve to highlight and interrogate the gendered impacts of water development projects’ policies: public and private lives, women’s labor expectations, and managing participation. We find that gender mainstreaming endeavors continue to fall short in their aim to equitably include women in their programming and that geographic, environmental, and socio-cultural spaces are intimately related to how these equitability issues play out. We provide practical recommendations on how to address these issues.}, number={3}, journal={Gender, Place and Culture}, author={Cairns, M.R. and Workman, C.L. and Tandon, I.}, year={2017}, pages={325–342} }
 @article{workman_ureksoy_2017, title={Water insecurity in a syndemic context: Understanding the psycho-emotional stress of water insecurity in Lesotho, Africa}, volume={179}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-85013967275&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.02.026}, abstractNote={Syndemics occur when populations experience synergistic and multiplicative effects of co-occurring epidemics. Proponents of syndemic theory highlight the importance of understanding the social context in which diseases spread and cogently argue that there are biocultural effects of external stresses such as food insecurity and water insecurity. Thus, a holistic understanding of disease or social vulnerability must incorporate an examination of the emotional and social effects of these phenomena. This paper is a response to the call for a renewed focus on measuring the psycho-emotional and psychosocial effects of food insecurity and water insecurity. Using a mixed-method approach of qualitative interviews and quantitative assessment, including a household demographic, illness, and water insecurity scale, the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, and the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-25, this research explored the psycho-emotional effects of water insecurity, food insecurity, and household illness on women and men residing in three low-land districts in Lesotho (n = 75). Conducted between February and November of 2011, this exploratory study first examined the complicated interaction of water insecurity, food insecurity and illness to understand and quantify the relationship between these co-occurring stresses in the context of HIV/AIDS. Second, it sought to separate the role of water insecurity in predicting psycho-emotional stress from other factors, such as food insecurity and household illness. When asked directly about water, qualitative research revealed water availability, access, usage amount, and perceived water cleanliness as important dimensions of water insecurity, creating stress in respondents' daily lives. Qualitative and quantitative data show that water insecurity, food insecurity and changing household demographics, likely resulting from the HIV/AIDS epidemic, are all associated with increased anxiety and depression, and support the conclusion that water insecurity is a critical syndemic dimension in Lesotho. Together, these data provide compelling evidence of the psycho-emotional burden of water insecurity.}, journal={Social Science and Medicine}, author={Workman, C.L. and Ureksoy, H.}, year={2017}, pages={52–60} }
 @article{workman_2016, title={Food Insecurity, Water Insecurity, and HIV/AIDS Syndemic in Lesotho: Monitoring and Evaluating a “Perfect Storm.”}, volume={38}, number={4}, journal={Practicing Anthropology}, author={Workman, Cassandra L.}, year={2016}, pages={55–58} }
 @inbook{whaler_miller_2010, title={Making the Transition: The Two-to Four-Year Institution Transfer Experience}, ISBN={9781349382071 9780230106826}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230106826_7}, DOI={10.1057/9780230106826_7}, abstractNote={Community colleges are emerging as important institutions for the production of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) graduates. More than 40% of all undergraduate engineering majors nationally attended community colleges at some point in their academic careers (Tsapogas, 2004). Most importantly, community colleges are used by greater numbers of minority and female students, older students and students from lower socioeconomic strata; all underrepresented in engineering. The demographics of community college students are certainly not static—a rise in attendance by traditionally aged students and a decline in attendance by older students is predicted to continue (Bryant, 2001). Since women and underrepresented minorities attend community colleges in high numbers, the community college pathway to four-year institutions is an important context for research. It is likely this trend will continue during lean economic times as community colleges are a less expensive option in comparison with other kinds of institutions. As such, researchers and STEM educators are calling for more research into understanding the transfer experience for female and underrepresented minority students.}, booktitle={Becoming an Engineer in Public Universities}, publisher={Palgrave Macmillan US}, author={Whaler, Cassandra Workman and Miller, Jason E.}, year={2010}, pages={147–171} }
 @inbook{cotner_whaler_tyson_2010, title={Producing STEM Graduates in Florida: Understanding the Florida Context}, ISBN={9781349382071 9780230106826}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230106826_2}, DOI={10.1057/9780230106826_2}, abstractNote={After making the case for studying STEM production in a national context in chapter one, chapter two narrows the focus to Florida, considering the state as a microcosm of issues confronting students pursuing STEM degrees across the country. Specifically, our discussion includes descriptions of the locations, demographic makeup, resources, and infrastructure, and overall campus ecology of the four engineering programs we focused on. The use of a mixed methods research approach allows this chapter to meet three goals. The first is to frame Florida as a unique field site that is also representative of national trends in engineering, including recruitment and retention of underrepresented women and minority students. A discussion of program efficacy provides information on how it is calculated and defined. The second goal is to familiarize the reader with ethnographic methods. Finally, we will apply our ethnographic methods to introduce the reader to the research sites, using observational and anecdotal information to contextualize interview and survey data presented here and in subsequent chapters. In subsequent chapters, we more closely examine culture and climate as they affect student fit and student retention in engineering undergraduate programs in the state.}, booktitle={Becoming an Engineer in Public Universities}, publisher={Palgrave Macmillan US}, author={Cotner, Bridget A. and Whaler, Cassandra Workman and Tyson, Will}, year={2010}, pages={21–51} }
 @inbook{borman_tyson_whaler_2010, title={Voices from the Field: Strategies for Enhancing Engineering Programs}, ISBN={9781349382071 9780230106826}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230106826_8}, DOI={10.1057/9780230106826_8}, abstractNote={In our concluding chapter, the aim is to make concrete recommendations building from the analyses presented in chapters three to seven in this volume. The goal is to assist undergraduate engineering programs, particularly those located in public universities, in strengthening their departments. The research informing this volume was a multi-disciplinary, mixed-method study which combined qualitative interviews, observations and focus group interviews with quantitative faculty and student surveys. This volume presents primarily qualitative data as interviews with students, faculty, administrators, staff members including counselors and advisors reveal strategies for enhancing undergraduate student experiences as well as revealing reasons why students left engineering. Faculty, administrators, and staff provide testimony based on their experiences with, in some cases, generations of students whose actions may lead to switching from engineering, poor academic performance, and/or delays in degree attainment.}, booktitle={Becoming an Engineer in Public Universities}, publisher={Palgrave Macmillan US}, author={Borman, Kathryn M. and Tyson, Will and Whaler, Cassandra Workman}, year={2010}, pages={173–190} }