@article{cihan_tittle_2019, title={Self-Control, Sanction Threats, Temptation, and Crime: Examining Contingencies of Self-Control in a Cross-National Context}, volume={65}, ISSN={["1552-387X"]}, DOI={10.1177/0011128718824939}, abstractNote={Using a representative household survey data, we examine the generality of self-control, the predictive strengths of sanction threats, and the interaction between criminal propensity and sanction threats in explaining criminal probability. Although the data confirm the generality of self-control predictions of deviant/criminal behavior in the Turkish cultural context, the effects appear quite modest and contingent on fear of informal sanctions and temptation. Consistent with the findings of recent studies, a small interaction between self-control and sanction threats suggests that deterrence is greatest among individuals with weak self-control. However, there is no interaction between sanction threats and temptation, suggesting that sanction fear is equally likely among individuals regardless of their level of temptation.}, number={4}, journal={CRIME & DELINQUENCY}, author={Cihan, Abdullah and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2019}, month={Apr}, pages={555–580} }
 @article{brauer_tittle_antonaccio_2019, title={The Costs of Coercive Control: Assessing Behavioral and Mental Health Correlates of Erratic and Oppressive Coercion}, volume={36}, ISSN={["1745-9109"]}, DOI={10.1080/07418825.2017.1403643}, abstractNote={Some theorists argue that coercion’s consequences depend upon the consistency with which it is experienced. This study measures the consistency of coercive experiences across social domains and lifespan stages then tests hypotheses linking coercion’s consistency to crime, prosocial behaviors, and depressive symptoms using data from randomly selected respondents in Ukraine and Bangladesh. Descriptive analyses test theoretical claims that erratic coercion generates crime while oppressive coercion deters crime, but at the cost of suppressing prosocial behaviors and exacerbating depressive symptoms. Findings show positive associations between projected criminal behavior and coercion’s magnitude, and between relative erratic but not absolute erratic coercion and projected criminal behavior. Oppressive coercion is linked to more depressive symptoms and, contradicting theoretical expectations, higher levels of criminal intent. Overall, this study’s findings challenge widespread reliance on coercive controls to influence social outcomes by documenting higher levels of projected criminal behavior and mental health problems among more coerced respondents.}, number={2}, journal={JUSTICE QUARTERLY}, author={Brauer, Jonathan R. and Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena}, year={2019}, month={Feb}, pages={255–286} }
 @article{brauer_tittle_2017, title={When Crime is not an Option: Inspecting the Moral Filtering of Criminal Action Alternatives}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1745-9109"]}, DOI={10.1080/07418825.2016.1226937}, abstractNote={Many theories assume legal compliance stems from rational deliberations about consequences of disobedience. In contrast, morality theories such as Wikström’s Situational Action Theory contend personal morality and moral contexts provide a “filter” prohibiting some people from perceiving and contemplating criminal actions as realistic possibilities. We examine this moral filtering hypothesis using face-to-face household survey data from 573 adults in the Dhaka District of Bangladesh. Results suggest individuals with higher levels of personal morality (moral beliefs; guilt from contemplating violence; moral identity; emotional empathy) and exposure to strong moral settings are less likely to contemplate aggressive and violent actions in response to a provocation. Furthermore, these dimensions of personal and contextual morality appear to be indirectly linked to violent criminal actions through individuals’ tendencies to contemplate aggressive actions when provoked. Overall, our initial inspection of the moral filter hypothesis provides substantial support and highlights areas for theoretical clarification and additional research.}, number={5}, journal={JUSTICE QUARTERLY}, author={Brauer, Jonathan R. and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2017}, pages={818–846} }
 @article{antonaccio_tittle_brauer_islam_2015, title={Supported and Coerced? A Cross-site Investigation of the Effects of Social Support and Coercion on Criminal Probability}, volume={31}, ISSN={["1573-7799"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10940-014-9224-7}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Antonaccio, Olena and Tittle, Charles R. and Brauer, Jonathan R. and Islam, M. Zakiul}, year={2015}, month={Mar}, pages={49–92} }
 @article{brauer_tittle_antonaccio_2013, title={Does Religion Suppress, Socialize, Soothe, or Support? Exploring Religiosity's Influence on Crime}, volume={52}, ISSN={["1468-5906"]}, DOI={10.1111/jssr.12063}, abstractNote={A negative association between religiosity and crime is commonly documented in the United States and other Western contexts. In this study, we examine associations between religiosity and criminal probability among randomly selected survey respondents in a non‐Western Christian context (Lviv, Ukraine) and a non‐Western Islamic context (Dhaka, Bangladesh). In addition, we explore whether religiosity is associated in these contexts with various theoretical mechanisms identified in prior research, including self‐control, social control, moral beliefs, negative emotions, and social support. Results confirm that religiosity is negatively correlated with projected criminal probability in non‐Western contexts as well as among both Christian and Muslim respondents. Furthermore, net of social and demographic characteristics, religiosity appears to indirectly influence crime through moral beliefs and, to a lesser extent, through self‐control and informal social control.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION}, author={Brauer, Jonathan R. and Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={753–774} }
 @article{brauer_tittle_antonaccio_islam_2012, title={Childhood Experiences and Self-Control}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1521-0456"]}, DOI={10.1080/01639625.2011.636642}, abstractNote={Survey data collected simultaneously in Dhaka, Bangladesh; Lviv, Ukraine; and a rural area of the Lviv region in Ukraine are used to examine hypothesized sources of self-control found in Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory (G/H) and in coercion/social support theory (CSS). Analyses provide limited support for the G/H model and almost no support for the challenge posed by arguments concerning social support and self-control. Exploratory analyses indicate that the various parenting dimensions specified in the G/H model and sources of social support implied by CSS theory may have countervailing influences on self-control, thereby producing less than desirable outcomes. Implications of these findings are discussed.}, number={5}, journal={DEVIANT BEHAVIOR}, author={Brauer, Jonathan R. and Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena and Islam, M. Zakiul}, year={2012}, pages={375–392} }
 @article{brauer_tittle_2012, title={SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND HUMAN REINFORCEMENT}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1521-0707"]}, DOI={10.1080/02732173.2012.646160}, abstractNote={Scholars differ in their assumptions about the strength of accumulated evidence concerning social learning theory. One area of potential weakness is a possible dearth of evidence regarding differential reinforcement, the theory's central causal mechanism. We report results from a systematic review of (1) a sample of experimental studies concerning human reinforcement learning as well as (2) criminological/sociological studies cited by proponents as supportive of social learning theory. This review is designed to assess the empirical basis for reinforcement and social learning. It suggests that results of experimental research, though supportive of the reinforcement process, may be limited in applicability to social learning theory's hypotheses regarding differential reinforcement, and direct tests of differential reinforcement hypotheses are rare in the non-experimental literature. We conclude that the strength of social learning theory could be enhanced by more thorough and direct testing of reinforcement hypotheses and we offer suggestions about how to accomplish that.}, number={2}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM}, author={Brauer, Jonathan R. and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2012}, pages={157–177} }
 @article{tittle_antonaccio_botchkovar_2012, title={Social Learning, Reinforcement and Crime: Evidence from Three European Cities}, volume={90}, ISSN={["0037-7732"]}, DOI={10.1093/sf/sor020}, abstractNote={This study reports a cross-cultural test of Social Learning Theory using direct measures of social learning constructs and focusing on the causal structure implied by the theory. Overall, the results strongly confirm the main thrust of the theory. Prior criminal reinforcement and current crime-favorable definitions are highly related in all three contexts and both strongly predict self-projections of criminal behavior. In addition, effects of prior reinforcement on projected misconduct appear to be both direct and indirect (through crime-favorable definitions). Yet, the findings also indicate that the processes underlying direct effects of reinforcement on criminal probabilities may need to be explicated further. Moreover, some types of definitions may be more influential than other types. Finally, parts of the reinforcement process may be affected by socio-cultural contexts.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIAL FORCES}, author={Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena and Botchkovar, Ekaterina}, year={2012}, month={Mar}, pages={863–890} }
 @article{botchkovar_tittle_antonaccio_2013, title={Strain, Coping, and Socioeconomic Status: Coping Histories and Present Choices}, volume={29}, ISSN={["1573-7799"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10940-012-9177-7}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Botchkovar, Ekaterina V. and Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={217–250} }
 @article{antonaccio_botchkovar_tittle_2011, title={ATTRACTED TO CRIME Exploration of Criminal Motivation Among Respondents in Three European Cities}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1552-3594"]}, DOI={10.1177/0093854811423347}, abstractNote={Using data from samples of randomly selected adults in three major cities in Greece, Russia, and Ukraine, several issues concerning criminal motivation are addressed. First, contrary to assumptions of many control theories, there is evidence of substantial variation in criminal attraction across individuals, with such attraction often being minimal. Second, direct measurement of criminal attraction is strongly associated with property and violent crime projections. Third, although variables from strain and social learning theories help explain criminal motivation, they do not appear sufficient to account for it. Nevertheless, attraction to crime appears to mediate the relationship between strain/prior reinforcement and criminal outcomes. Yet, the results show variations among research sites, thus indicating that the part played by criminal motivation may be somewhat context dependent. Overall, the research suggests the wisdom of further attention to motivation, particularly in improving efforts to explain it, measure it directly, and bring it more prominently into explanatory models.}, number={12}, journal={CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR}, author={Antonaccio, Olena and Botchkovar, Ekaterina V. and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2011}, month={Dec}, pages={1200–1221} }
 @article{tittle_botchkovar_antonaccio_2011, title={Criminal Contemplation, National Context, and Deterrence}, volume={27}, ISSN={["1573-7799"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10940-010-9104-8}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Tittle, Charles R. and Botchkovar, Ekaterina V. and Antonaccio, Olena}, year={2011}, month={Jun}, pages={225–249} }
 @article{tittle_antonaccio_botchkovar_kranidioti_2010, title={Expected utility, self-control, morality, and criminal probability}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.08.007}, abstractNote={With data from random sample household surveys conducted simultaneously in major cities in Greece and in Russia, we evaluate the import of individuals’ morality relative to expected utility and self-control in predicting criminal probability. In addition, we examine potential interactions among the three variables in predicting criminal propensity and compare their relative effects across the two samples. The results suggest that all three factors are important and mostly independent influences in explaining criminal probability. However, the estimated effects of morality are substantially stronger than those of either expected utility or self-control, and all three of these explanatory variables appear to be somewhat sensitive to cultural contexts. Overall, our findings confirm that morality plays a comparatively larger part in explaining conformity than is generally recognized by major contemporary theories, although the data cannot show whether morality is an element in rational decision making or represents a contrary “non-rational” element in accounting for human conduct.}, number={6}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena and Botchkovar, Ekaterina and Kranidioti, Maria}, year={2010}, month={Nov}, pages={1029–1046} }
 @article{antonaccio_tittle_botchkovar_kranidiotis_2010, title={The Correlates of Crime and Deviance: Additional Evidence}, volume={47}, ISSN={["1552-731X"]}, DOI={10.1177/0022427810365678}, abstractNote={Comparable survey data collected simultaneously in major cities in Greece, Russia, and Ukraine indicate that the usual correlates of self-reported criminal/deviant behavior derived from research in well-studied, mostly Western societies, do not necessarily hold cross-nationally. The data confirm only two of six potential correlates of self-reported criminal/deviant behavior—age and deviant peer association. Two widely assumed correlates of criminal propensity—gender and marital status—prove to be somewhat unreliable and sensitive to these cultural contexts. Religiosity is generally negatively linked to crime/deviance in bivariate but not multivariate analyses. In bivariate analysis socioeconomic status (SES) proves to be highly sensitive to the investigated cultural contexts whereas in multivariate analysis SES is not significantly related in any consistent fashion to criminality in any of the three countries. These results show the value of cross-cultural research and suggest that effective explanation of criminal and deviant behavior may require more attention to cultural variations.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY}, author={Antonaccio, Olena and Tittle, Charles R. and Botchkovar, Ekaterina and Kranidiotis, Maria}, year={2010}, month={Aug}, pages={297–328} }
 @misc{botchkovar_tittle_antonaccio_2009, title={GENERAL STRAIN THEORY: ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE USING CROSS-CULTURAL DATA}, volume={47}, ISSN={["1745-9125"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00141.x}, abstractNote={Data from random samples of residents in major cities of Russia, Ukraine, and Greece are employed to test hypotheses about linkages among objective strain, subjective strain, anger, and criminal probability specified in general strain theory (GST). In addition, the potential conditioning effects of religiosity and self‐control on the strain/criminal probability relationship are investigated. Results show more challenge than support for GST. In particular, all supportive results are for the Ukrainian sample with the Greek and Russian samples providing little confirmation to the study's hypotheses. Although analyses show some support for the basic premises of GST, using a measure of subjective strain does not improve results, and self‐control and religiosity do not seem to condition the effects of strain on criminal probability. Overall, the findings point to contextual specificity of GST as currently formulated and suggest the need for further theorizing.}, number={1}, journal={CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Botchkovar, Ekaterina V. and Tittle, Charles R. and Antonaccio, Olena}, year={2009}, month={Feb}, pages={131–176} }
 @article{tittle_rotolo_2010, title={Socio-demographic homogenizing trends within fixed-boundary spatial areas in the United States}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.04.002}, abstractNote={Using complete census tract, county, and PMSA analog data with longitudinally fixed (standardized) boundaries for the entire United States in 1980, 1990, and 2000, we investigate potential homogenizing trends within spatial areas hypothesized by Massey and others but contradicted by the theorizing of Florida and others. The results for seven socio-demographic variables show a trend toward increasing similarity in the majority of socio-demographic variables in all types of spatial units examined. However, we observe increasing heterogeneity in some conditions and for some variables, particularly racial/ethnic characteristics and family structure. These findings are consistent with the collective body of prior evidence based on less comprehensive data, suggesting that theories of social change and spatial characteristics may benefit from some degree of theoretical integration in which the circumstances under which homogenization or heterogenization may be most likely are better specified theoretically.}, number={2}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={Tittle, Charles R. and Rotolo, Thomas}, year={2010}, month={Mar}, pages={324–340} }
 @article{botchkovar_tittle_2008, title={Delineating the scope of Reintegrative Shaming theory: An explanation of contingencies using Russian data}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.12.001}, abstractNote={Abstract Drawing on predictions derived from self-control theory, general strain theory, and deterrence theory, we attempt to improve Braithwaite’s shaming theory by identifying conditions under which its causal process might be more effective in explaining misbehavior. Using data elicited from 224 Russian respondents, we put the elaborated version of shaming theory to the test in its. In line with previous research, study findings indicate that, contrary to the theory’s predictions, being reintegratively shamed is positively associated with projected deviance. While some of the hypothesized contingencies seem to condition the effects of shaming on projected deviance, none of our findings confirm original hypotheses. These results, in conjunction with the accumulated body of research, suggest that reintegrative shaming theory may be in need of further revision.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={Botchkovar, Ekaterina and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2008}, month={Sep}, pages={703–720} }
 @article{antonaccio_tittle_2008, title={Morality, self-control, and crime}, volume={46}, ISSN={["1745-9125"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00116.x}, abstractNote={This paper offers evidence to specify further Self‐Control Theory by investigating its predictive strength relative to morality and its interconnections with morality in accounting for criminal probability. Using random sample household survey data from Lviv, Ukraine, we confirm that self‐control is an important predictor of criminal probabilities in an unusual cultural context. However, morality is also shown to be a strong independent predictor with strength that seems to exceed substantially that of self‐control. In addition, taking morality into account significantly reduces the coefficients for self‐control, sometimes eliminating them entirely, and morality shows little interaction with self‐control in its predictions of the measures of criminal probability. The results suggest that the recently formulated Situational Action Theory, which features (weak) morality as the prime cause of criminal behavior and questions the relative importance of self‐control, should be taken seriously. Overall, the results confirm the importance of self‐control as a factor in misbehavior; yet, they also provide a mandate for greater attention to morality as a potent variable in understanding misconduct.}, number={2}, journal={CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Antonaccio, Olena and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2008}, month={May}, pages={479–510} }
 @article{tittle_broidy_gertz_2008, title={Strain, crime, and contingencies}, volume={25}, ISSN={["0741-8825"]}, DOI={10.1080/07418820802024929}, abstractNote={Hypotheses from General Strain theory are addressed using data from a random sample of adults in Raleigh, NC. Analyses examine three issues: (1) whether strain predicts self‐projected criminal behavior; controlling for past self‐reported crime; (2) whether negative emotions mediate the relationship between strain and projected crime; and (3) whether social support and criminal peers serve as contingencies or mediators for strain in predicting criminality. Results are generally consistent with previous studies focusing on youth. Three of four measures of strain are found to predict the crime measures. However, that relationship is not mediated by negative emotion and the measures of social support and criminal peers do not act as contingencies or mediators. The results suggest that strain may not operate through negative emotions and that theoretical refinement is needed to identify which potential contingencies are likely to be operating under various circumstances.}, number={2}, journal={JUSTICE QUARTERLY}, author={Tittle, Charles R. and Broidy, Lisa M. and Gertz, Marc G.}, year={2008}, pages={283–312} }
 @article{antonaccio_tittle_2007, title={A cross-national test of Bonger's theory of criminality and economic conditions}, volume={45}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00098.x}, abstractNote={Using international data for 100 countries, we test two hypotheses derived from Bonger's Marxian theory of crime. The analyses support the hypothesis that the degree of capitalism significantly predicts homicide rates, but they fail to confirm that the de‐moralization of the population (loss of moral feelings for others) mediates the relationship between capitalism and homicide. Although capitalism is not the best predictor among those considered, overall, the results underline the importance of Bonger's ideas because both capitalism and corruption (our indicator of de‐moralization) show reasonably strong relationships with homicide rates and compete with other variables commonly used as predictors of international homicide rates. The results confirm the usefulness of attempting to subject Marxian ideas to positivist, quantitative tests, with an eye to integrating Marxian theories with other mainstream theories, such as institutional anomie theory.}, number={4}, journal={Criminology}, author={Antonaccio, O. and Tittle, C. R.}, year={2007}, pages={925–958} }
 @article{mccall_tittle_2007, title={Population size and suicide in US cities: A static and dynamic exploration}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0363-0234"]}, DOI={10.1521/suli.2007.37.5.553}, abstractNote={The relationship between city population size and suicide rates rarely has been examined directly, though scholars often assume such a relationship exists based on studies of the association between suicide rates and urbanization (percent of the population living in cities) in various social contexts. In an effort to determine the basic association between suicide rates and city population size, we analyze data for four time points, 1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990, using a random sample of U.S. cities with 10,000 or more population in 1960. In addition, we conduct a time series analysis of change in population size and change in suicide rates over a two decade period. Results indicate that an association between population and suicide is atypical, and even when observed is highly sensitive to methodological specifications. The results call into question the notion that larger city population size is conducive to suicide as well as the assumption that studies of suicide and urbanization can substitute for studies of suicide and city population size.}, number={5}, journal={SUICIDE AND LIFE-THREATENING BEHAVIOR}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2007}, month={Oct}, pages={553–564} }
 @article{tittle_welch_grasmick_2008, title={Self-control, political ideology, and misbehavior: Unpacking the effects of conservative identity}, volume={28}, ISSN={["1521-0707"]}, DOI={10.1080/02732170701675078}, abstractNote={Survey data collected from a southwestern metropolitan area indicate that self-defined politically conservative individuals are less inclined to commit criminal or deviant acts than their liberal or moderate counterparts; however, results from multivariate analyses indicate that measures of self-control and pressure to conform all reduce the effects of political conservatism to nonsignificance. In general, the relationship between political ideology and misbehavior appears to be partly spurious and partly indirectly attributable to the effects of other social and situational factors. Moreover, responsiveness to pressures to conform is not due to self-control. The results provide some challenge to traditional interpretations of misbehavior but they also confirm an important part played by structural/contextual variables.}, number={1}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM}, author={Tittle, Charles R. and Welch, Michael R. and Grasmick, Harold G.}, year={2008}, pages={4–35} }
 @misc{welch_tittle_yonkoski_meidinger_grasmick_2008, title={Social integration, self-control, and conformity}, volume={24}, ISSN={["1573-7799"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10940-007-9039-x}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Welch, Michael R. and Tittle, Charles R. and Yonkoski, Jennifer and Meidinger, Nicole and Grasmick, Harold G.}, year={2008}, month={Mar}, pages={73–92} }
 @article{tittle_2007, title={The explanation of crime: Context, mechanisms and development}, volume={36}, ISSN={["1939-8638"]}, DOI={10.1177/009430610703600549}, abstractNote={er goals are brushed aside quite so quickly. And one might also wonder how the various measures of recidivism used can be reconciled. For example, with regard to academic education and life skills programs, rearrest and return to prison are the two measures used—but these measure very different things. For adult boot camp programs, an astonishing 11 measures of recidivism are used for 25 different samples. Finally, and perhaps most worrying, is the sense of certainty that What Works in Corrections offers. In the final chapter there is a list of programs that work and another of programs that do not work. The implication for policymakers is clear—use the former and forget the latter. But we are no further forward with the real question of why some programs work and others do not (and if we follow the methodological prescription on offer here, we will never move forward). Without knowing this, it becomes difficult to replicate effective programs and learn from the failures. The contested nature of research, the shifting sands that represent the reality of social science research, are nowhere in evidence. Dr. MacKenzie (and her colleagues in the CCCJG) would appear to be quite willing to judge criminological research according to their own methodological standards—something that academics have always done—but the group’s success in receiving funding from the U.S., UK and Canadian governments makes such attempts to impose standards rather disturbing. Science is surely about encouraging debate, not trying to close it off. What Works in Corrections is far more than just another academic study. It is not too much to claim that it is part of a battle that is currently being waged between academics— a battle whose outcome will have profound implications for criminological (and other social scientific) research. The Explanation of Crime: Context, Mechanisms and Development, edited by PerOlof H. Wikström and Robert J. Sampson. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 305 pp. $72.00 cloth. ISBN: 0521857074.}, number={5}, journal={CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY-A JOURNAL OF REVIEWS}, author={Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2007}, month={Sep}, pages={484–485} }
 @article{latimore_tittle_grasmick_2006, title={Childrearing, self-control, and crime: Additional evidence}, volume={76}, ISSN={["1475-682X"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1475-682X.2006.00159.x}, abstractNote={Gottfredson and Hirschi's model of caregiving to produce high self-control is examined using survey data from a city population of adults. The data permit assessment of the predictive ability of all three elements of the regimen, separately and in com-bination. While a combination of the elements of the specified model and some of the individual components prove to be statistically significant predictors of self-control, the coefficients are only modest ones. In addition, the sequential model of crime production set forth by the theorists proves to be questionable. These findings add to an emerging body of research suggesting that self-control may be dependent on things other than the childhood caregiving regimen identified in self-control theory.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY}, author={Latimore, T. Lorraine and Tittle, Charles R. and Grasmick, Harold G.}, year={2006}, month={Aug}, pages={343–371} }
 @article{welch_tittle_grasmick_2006, title={Christian religiosity, self-control and social conformity}, volume={84}, ISSN={["1534-7605"]}, DOI={10.1353/sof.2006.0075}, abstractNote={Survey data from a southwestern metropolitan area are used to analyze whether the ability of personal Christian religiosity to predict social conformity is spuriously due to self-control. Results indicate that both personal religiosity and self-control display statistically significant, independent negative net relationships with many forms of projected misbehavior. And interaction between self-control and religiosity in predicting deviance appears to be limited. Thus, self-control does not seem to account for the effects of religiosity, leaving the issue of how and why religiosity leads to conformity unresolved.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIAL FORCES}, author={Welch, MR and Tittle, CR and Grasmick, HG}, year={2006}, month={Mar}, pages={1605–1623} }
 @article{rotolo_tittle_2006, title={Population size, change, and crime in US cities}, volume={22}, ISSN={["1573-7799"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10940-006-9015-x}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Rotolo, Thomas and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2006}, month={Dec}, pages={341–367} }
 @article{botchkovar_tittle_2005, title={Crime, shame and reintegration in Russia}, volume={9}, ISSN={["1461-7439"]}, DOI={10.1177/1362480605057726}, abstractNote={We address individual-level hypotheses from Braithwaite’s shaming theory using Russian survey data. The results are mixed. Disintegrative shaming is associated with future misconduct, but being reintegratively shamed is also positively predictive of projected crime/deviance while participating in gossip is unrelated to future deviance. Interdependency does not seem to enhance the effects of shaming variables. In addition, guilt and fear of losing respect from others for potential misbehavior do not seem to be related to past shaming experiences nor do they mediate supposed relationships between past shaming experiences and misconduct. These results, in conjunction with the collective body of evidence already compiled, suggest that the theory may need further refinement.}, number={4}, journal={THEORETICAL CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Botchkovar, EV and Tittle, CR}, year={2005}, month={Nov}, pages={401–442} }
 @misc{tittle_botchkovar_2005, title={Self-control, criminal motivation and deterrence: An investigation using Russian respondents}, volume={43}, ISSN={["1745-9125"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00010.x}, abstractNote={With data from respondents in Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, we address the generality of self-control theory. We also assess two hypotheses. The first focuses on the attractiveness of criminal acts, that is, motivation toward crime. The second concerns the contention that the mediating link between self-control and criminal conduct is the failure of those with less self-control to anticipate the long-term costs of misbehavior. Although the magnitude of associations between self-control and indicators of criminal behavior is about the same in this study as it is in others, which suggests that the theory is not culturally bound, those associations are largely overshadowed by criminal attraction. Consistent with that, failure to anticipate costly long-term consequences does not appear to be the mediating link between self-control and criminal behavior: the evidence shows no tendency for sanction fear to be greater among those with greater self-control. In fact, sanction fear is modestly and significantly related to the crime measures independent of self-control, though sanction fear also appears to be influenced by criminal attraction. The results suggest that in the production of criminal behavior, motivation may be more important than controls inhibiting criminal impulses.}, number={2}, journal={CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Tittle, CR and Botchkovar, EV}, year={2005}, month={May}, pages={307–353} }
 @misc{tittle_botchkovar_2005, title={The generality and hegemony of self-control theory: A comparison of Russian and US adults}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.12.003}, abstractNote={Abstract Unique data from residents of Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, are used to address issues about self-control. They provide some support for the generality claims of the theory, that self-control is associated with criminal behavior regardless of the cultural context, but evidence concerning the idea that self-control explains associations between standard predictive variables and crime is mixed. The analyses reveal a general association between self-control and indicators of criminal behavior that is consistent with that shown by the collective body of evidence. However, criminal opportunity (and in most instances deviant peer association) is found to predict the indicators of misbehavior as well as or perhaps better than, and independently of, self-control. Moreover, self-control only partially renders relationships between well known predictive variables and crime spurious. Thus, these results from an unusual cultural context confirm that self-control is at least a modest but persistent predictor of indicators of criminal conduct. However, self-control does not appear to be as potent as the authors of self-control theory contend and it may not even be as important as criminal opportunity, a variable that some have interpreted as a precondition for the operation of self-control in accounting for criminal/deviant behavior, or deviant peer association.}, number={4}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={Tittle, CR and Botchkovar, EV}, year={2005}, month={Dec}, pages={703–731} }
 @article{tittle_ward_grasmick_2004, title={Capacity for self-control and individuals' interest in exercising self-control}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1573-7799"]}, DOI={10.1023/B:JOQC.0000029092.81837.74}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Tittle, CR and Ward, DA and Grasmick, HG}, year={2004}, month={Jun}, pages={143–172} }
 @article{tittle_2004, title={Refining control balance theory}, volume={8}, ISSN={["1461-7439"]}, DOI={10.1177/1362480604046657}, abstractNote={This article proposes revisions to control balance theory to address a logical flaw, mistaken categorization, and inconsistencies and conceptual ambiguity in the original formulation, and it attempts to accommodate empirical findings that challenge some of its premises. The reformulated theory addresses three forms of behavior—conformity, deviance and submission—and introduces the concept of ‘control balance desirability’ to help resolve some issues in the original formulation.}, number={4}, journal={THEORETICAL CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Tittle, CR}, year={2004}, month={Nov}, pages={395–428} }
 @article{tittle_2004, title={The arrogance of public sociology}, volume={82}, ISSN={["0037-7732"]}, DOI={10.1353/sof.2004.0097}, abstractNote={My job is to introduce a little tension into an otherwise harmonious system. Public sociology, along with its cousin policy sociology, are currently very popular. My guess is that the vast majority of the audience is in agreement with Burawoy's call for an enlargement of public sociology. And I suspect that most people in the U.S. today who call themselves sociologists somehow want to be molders of society. It is important, therefore, to challenge some issues implied by the call for more public sociology. Yet, criticizing Burawoy's argument in a cogent way is difficult because his position is not entirely clear. Because what he means by "public sociology" is somewhat problematic, almost anything I say can be countered by a disclaimer that the object of my comment is not, in fact, part of his position or that it is not what he meant. Nevertheless, I will react to what I understand his points to be and to what I interpret his statements about public sociology to imply. As I understand it, Burawoy argues that (1) public sociology bears an interactive and mutually stimulating relationship with other forms of sociology, particularly what he calls "professional sociology," (2) public sociology is a desirable activity to be encouraged; indeed, that it is vital to the health of the entire sociological enterprise, (3) public sociology depends on a base of strong professional sociology and that the two are not fundamentally incompatible. Further, from his remarks here and from his writings, I gather that public sociology encompasses many things, including: (1) engagement in political activities to promote somebody's conception (I guess his) of social justice, (2) actively revealing to nonprofessional audiences the knowledge that sociologists think they have or the truths they think they know, (3) orienting our research and writing around moral issues, (4) engaging the public in debate about moral questions based on sociological insights, and (5) helping various "publics" solve problems or gather information relevant to their concerns, or helping to create such publics. If my interpretation of the meaning of "public sociology" is correct, then a program encouraging sociologists to become more "public" would appear to be a mistake. In my opinion, "public sociology" (1) involves some false assumptions, (2) endangers what little legitimacy sociology has, thereby helping}, number={4}, journal={SOCIAL FORCES}, author={Tittle, CR}, year={2004}, month={Jun}, pages={1639–1643} }
 @article{tittle_bratton_gertz_2003, title={A test of a micro-level application of shaming theory}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1533-8533"]}, DOI={10.1525/sp.2003.50.4.592}, abstractNote={Using self-projected measures of criminal behavior obtained from a telephone survey, we investigate the predictive ability of four variables central to individual-level application of Braithwaite's shaming theory: participation in gossip, having been reintegratively shamed, having been the object of gossip, and having been stigmatically shamed. The results are partially supportive of the theory. Contrary to expectations, the theoretical inhibitory shaming variables (participation in gossip and being reintegratively shamed) do not reduce projected misbehavior. Consistent with predictions, however, theorized crime-generative shaming variables (having been the object of gossip and having been stigmatically shamed) do appear to increase the chances of several forms of misbehavior. In addition, individuals' interdependency does not enhance the effects of the inhibitory shaming variables and has only limited and contradictory effects in enhancing the effects of crime-generative shaming variables. Results suggest that the theory needs clarification and that it may need further refinement to specify more carefully the conditions under which shaming processes inhibit or enhance criminal probabilities.}, number={4}, journal={SOCIAL PROBLEMS}, author={Tittle, CR and Bratton, J and Gertz, MG}, year={2003}, month={Nov}, pages={592–617} }
 @article{tittle_ward_grasmick_2003, title={Gender, age, and crime/deviance: A challenge to self-control theory}, volume={40}, ISSN={["1552-731X"]}, DOI={10.1177/0022427803256074}, abstractNote={ Focusing on gender and age variations and using various measures of self-control and of crime/deviance, the authors' provide additional evidence concerning the strongest implications of self-control theory—that self-control interprets the main demo-graphic facts about crime/deviance and is of approximately equal import for all sub-categories of individuals. On one hand, the results are strongly supportive of the theory, showing that some measures of self-control not only predict misbehavior but they interpret the associations between gender and age and measures of crime/deviance. On the other hand, self-control does not appear to predict misbehavior equally well among various subcategories of individuals, particularly not for age groups, even failing to predict misbehavior at all for some groupings. Moreover, sup-port for the strongest claims of the theory are not robust, varying depending on how self-control and crime/deviance are measured. }, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY}, author={Tittle, CR and Ward, DA and Grasmick, HG}, year={2003}, month={Nov}, pages={426–453} }
 @article{tittle_ward_grasmick_2003, title={Self-control and crime/deviance: Cognitive vs. behavioral measures}, volume={19}, ISSN={["0748-4518"]}, DOI={10.1023/B:JOQC.0000005439.45614.24}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Tittle, CR and Ward, DA and Grasmick, HG}, year={2003}, month={Dec}, pages={333–365} }
 @article{tittle_grasmick_2001, title={Urbanity: Influences of urbanness, structure, and culture}, volume={30}, ISSN={["0049-089X"]}, DOI={10.1006/ssre.2001.0700}, abstractNote={Abstract Our objective is to explore the adequacy of traditional structural explanations for the often-documented association between size of place and urbanity traits and to raise the possibility that cultural factors, too often neglected in urban sociology, play an important role in this relationship. Using survey data from a sample ages 15–89, we compare four sets of respondents with different child/adult residential configurations: those who grew up in nonurban places and as adults live in nonurban places (locals), those who grew up in nonurban places but as adults reside in urban places (cosmopolitans), those who grew up in urban places and reside in urban places as adults (urbanites), and those reared in urban places but residing as adults in nonurban places (escapees). The sets are compared with respect to six different measures of urbanity—anonymity, tolerance, alienation, community social bonds, deviant behavior, and involvement in unconventional subcultures. Our results support the contention that size has an independent effect on urbanity, but various structural theories generally fail to explain many aspects of the relationship. Instead, the views of Hummon (1990) about a shared culture of place are most consistent with our findings. We conclude by noting the kinds of contributions such a culturalist perspective can make to understanding the link between size of place and individual characteristics.}, number={2}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={Tittle, CR and Grasmick, HG}, year={2001}, month={Jun}, pages={313–335} }
 @article{tittle_rotolo_2000, title={IQ and stratification: An empirical evaluation of Herrnstein and Murray's social change argument}, volume={79}, DOI={10.1093/sf/79.1.1}, abstractNote={A state-level index of the conditions that Herrnstein and Murray suggest tightened the relationship between IQ and status in the past century as well as a measure of credentialing by examination are used to try to explain interstate variation in the association between IQ and status attainment circa 1990. The results contradict Herrnstein and Murray's interpretation and provide support for an alternative credentialing argument. The more a state uses written, IQ-like examinations as screening devices for occupational access, the stronger the relationship between IQ and income. Thus, rather than higher IQ leading to status attainment because it indicates skills needed in a modern society, IQ may reflect the same test-taking abilities used in artificial screening devices by which status groups protect their domains}, number={1}, journal={Social Forces}, author={Tittle, C. R. and Rotolo, T.}, year={2000}, pages={1–28} }