@article{line_doll_2023, title={EFFECTS OF LIVESTOCK EXCLUSION ON POLLUTANT EXPORT FROM A NORTH CAROLINA BEEF COW PASTURE}, volume={66}, ISSN={["2769-3287"]}, DOI={10.13031/ja.15348}, abstractNote={Highlights Exclusion of beef cattle from two streams resulted in significant reductions in nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment exports. Reductions in nutrient and sediment export improved following four or more years of exclusion. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in storm samples decreased more than those in baseflow samples. Abstract. Fences were installed to exclude cattle from two adjacent small streams on a beef and swine farm located in central North Carolina. The two streams, referred to as UTA and North, originated in a pasture used for beef cow production and the application of swine waste. Rainfall and discharge were continuously monitored for 1.34 years prior to and 1.8 years after the fencing was installed in order to quantify the effect of the livestock exclusion on pollutant export/loads in the two streams originating in the pasture. Monitoring results documented reductions in total nitrogen (TN), phosphorus (TP), and total suspended solids (TSS) exports via the North stream of 15%, 54%, and 67%, respectively. Monitoring on the UTA stream was restarted 3.7 years after the initial 1.8 years and continued for about 1 year to assess the effect of natural vegetation growth and stream channel soil recovery. The combined reductions for the two periods were 39%, 64%, and 74% for TN, TP, and TSS, respectively. Exports of TN, TP, and TSS during the later monitoring period decreased by 13%, 60%, and 22%, respectively, compared to the initial 1.8-year monitoring period. These results indicated that exclusion fencing was effective at reducing pollutant exports during the first 1.8 years and that its effectiveness increased after about four years. Consequently, studies that report effectiveness during the first 2 to 4 years after exclusion likely underestimate the long-term effectiveness of the exclusion fencing. Keywords: Best management practices, Discharge monitoring, Livestock exclusion.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE ASABE}, author={Line, Daniel E. and Doll, Barbara}, year={2023}, pages={99–105} }
 @article{welikhe_williams_king_bos_akland_baffaut_beck_bierer_bosch_brooks_et al._2023, title={Uncertainty in phosphorus fluxes and budgets across the US long-term agroecosystem research network}, volume={6}, ISSN={["1537-2537"]}, DOI={10.1002/jeq2.20485}, abstractNote={Phosphorus (P) budgets can be useful tools for understanding nutrient cycling and quantifying the effectiveness of nutrient management planning and policies; however, uncertainties in agricultural nutrient budgets are not often quantitatively assessed. The objective of this study was to evaluate uncertainty in P fluxes (fertilizer/manure application, atmospheric deposition, irrigation, crop removal, surface runoff, and leachate) and the propagation of these uncertainties to annual P budgets. Data from 56 cropping systems in the P-FLUX database, which spans diverse rotations and landscapes across the United States and Canada, were evaluated. Results showed that across cropping systems, average annual P budget was 22.4 kg P ha−1 (range = −32.7 to 340.6 kg P ha−1), with an average uncertainty of 13.1 kg P ha−1 (range = 1.0–87.1 kg P ha−1). Fertilizer/manure application and crop removal were the largest P fluxes across cropping systems and, as a result, accounted for the largest fraction of uncertainty in annual budgets (61% and 37%, respectively). Remaining fluxes individually accounted for <2% of the budget uncertainty. Uncertainties were large enough that determining whether P was increasing, decreasing, or not changing was inconclusive in 39% of the budgets evaluated. Findings indicate that more careful and/or direct measurements of inputs, outputs, and stocks are needed. Recommendations for minimizing uncertainty in P budgets based on the results of the study were developed. Quantifying, communicating, and constraining uncertainty in budgets among production systems and multiple geographies is critical for engaging stakeholders, developing local and national strategies for P reduction, and informing policy.}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY}, author={Welikhe, Pauline and Williams, Mark R. and King, Kevin and Bos, Janae and Akland, Mark and Baffaut, Claire and Beck, E. Glynn and Bierer, Andrew and Bosch, David D. and Brooks, Erin S. and et al.}, year={2023}, month={Jun} }
 @article{kurki-fox_doll_line_baldwin_klondike_fox_2022, title={Estimating Changes in Peak Flow and Associated Reductions in Flooding Resulting from Implementing Natural Infrastructure in the Neuse River Basin, North Carolina, USA}, volume={14}, ISSN={["2073-4441"]}, url={https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/9/1479}, DOI={10.3390/w14091479}, abstractNote={As the frequency of more intense storms increases and concerns grow regarding the use of dams and levees, the focus has shifted to natural infrastructure (NI) for flood mitigation. NI has shown some success at small scales; however, little work has been carried out at the large watershed scale during extreme events. Three NI measures (afforestation, water farming, and flood control wetlands) were evaluated in the Neuse River Basin of eastern North Carolina. Detailed geospatial opportunity and hydrologic modeling of the measures were conducted in three subwatersheds of the basin and results were extrapolated to other subwatersheds. NI opportunity was greater and associated modeled peak flow reductions were larger for two subwatersheds located in the lower portion of the basin, where there is less development and flatter land slopes. Peak flow reductions varied spatially depending on the type and placement of NI combined with the hydraulic and morphologic characteristics of the stream network. Extrapolation of reductions to other subwatersheds produced a 4.4% reduction in peak flow for the 100 year storm at the outlet of the river basin in Kinston as a result of water farming on 1.1%, wetlands controlling runoff from 5.7%, and afforestation of 8.4% of the river basin.}, number={9}, journal={WATER}, author={Kurki-Fox, J. Jack and Doll, Barbara A. and Line, Daniel E. and Baldwin, Madalyn E. and Klondike, Travis M. and Fox, Andrew A.}, year={2022}, month={May} }
 @article{williams_welikhe_bos_king_akland_augustine_baffaut_beck_bierer_bosch_et al._2022, title={P-FLUX: A phosphorus budget dataset spanning diverse agricultural production systems in the United States and Canada}, volume={4}, ISSN={["1537-2537"]}, DOI={10.1002/jeq2.20351}, abstractNote={Quantifying spatial and temporal fluxes of phosphorus (P) within and among agricultural production systems is critical for sustaining agricultural production while minimizing environmental impacts. To better understand P fluxes in agricultural landscapes, P-FLUX, a detailed and harmonized dataset of P inputs, outputs, and budgets, as well as estimated uncertainties for each P flux and budget, was developed. Data were collected from 24 research sites and 61 production systems through the Long-term Agroecosystem Research (LTAR) network and partner organizations spanning 22 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces. The objectives of this paper are to (a) present and provide a description of the P-FLUX dataset, (b) provide summary analyses of the agricultural production systems included in the dataset and the variability in P inputs and outputs across systems, and (c) provide details for accessing the dataset, dataset limitations, and an example of future use. P-FLUX includes information on select site characteristics (area, soil series), crop rotation, P inputs (P application rate, source, timing, placement, P in irrigation water, atmospheric deposition), P outputs (crop removal, hydrologic losses), P budgets (agronomic budget, overall budget), uncertainties associated with each flux and budget, and data sources. Phosphorus fluxes and budgets vary across agricultural production systems and are useful resources to improve P use efficiency and develop management strategies to mitigate environmental impacts of agricultural systems. P-FLUX is available for download through the USDA Ag Data Commons (https://doi.org/10.15482/USDA.ADC/1523365).}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY}, author={Williams, M. R. and Welikhe, P. and Bos, J. and King, K. and Akland, M. and Augustine, D. and Baffaut, C. and Beck, E. G. and Bierer, A. and Bosch, D. D. and et al.}, year={2022}, month={Apr} }
 @article{kurki-fox_doll_line_baldwin_klondike_fox_2022, title={The flood reduction and water quality impacts of watershed-scale natural infrastructure implementation in North Carolina, USA}, volume={181}, ISSN={["1872-6992"]}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106696}, DOI={10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106696}, abstractNote={Natural infrastructure as a mitigation measure for flooding has received increased attention following recent extreme rainfall and flood events in North Carolina. While natural infrastructure (e.g., wetlands, floodplain expansion, reforestation, etc.) has been shown to reduce runoff and mitigate peak flows, it is difficult to predict the aggregate impacts of widespread implementation at the watershed scale for a given location. The primary objectives of this study were to identify suitable areas for natural infrastructure implementation on the landscape to reduce flooding and to use the Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to simulate the flood reduction and water quality impacts for three subwatersheds (~150 sq. km each) of the Neuse River Basin. Model results indicated that substantial localized annual maximum flow reduction (up to 30–40%) was possible, mostly correlated to the area of natural infrastructure implementation in the subbasin, but flood reduction benefits declined at the subwatershed-scale (1–16%). On a per hectare basis, wetlands sized and designed strategically for flood control had a greater impact on peak flow reduction than reforestation. The implementation of reforestation and flood control wetlands produced substantial nutrient and sediment load reductions, which also correlated with the area of natural infrastructure implementation. Total nitrogen load reduction ranged from 6 to 18% and total phosphorus load reductions from 4 to 17% for the most intensive implementation of wetlands restoration and reforestation. Sediment load reductions ranged from 16 to 30%. The results of this study illustrate that while flood reduction benefits can be realized at local scales (i.e., subbasin), a substantial area would need to be converted to natural infrastructure to provide flood reduction benefits at the watershed scale.}, journal={ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Kurki-Fox, Jack and Doll, Barbara A. and Line, Daniel E. and Baldwin, Madalyn E. and Klondike, Travis M. and Fox, Andrew A.}, year={2022}, month={Aug} }
 @article{hovis_hollinger_cubbage_shear_doll_kurki-fox_line_fox_baldwin_klondike_et al._2021, title={Natural Infrastructure Practices as Potential Flood Storage and Reduction for Farms and Rural Communities in the North Carolina Coastal Plain}, volume={13}, ISSN={["2071-1050"]}, url={https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/16/9309}, DOI={10.3390/su13169309}, abstractNote={Increased global temperatures resulting from anthropogenically induced climate changes have increased the frequency and severity of adverse weather events, including extreme rainfall events, floods, and droughts. In recent years, nature-based solutions (NBS) have been proposed to retain storm runoff temporarily and mitigate flood damages. These practices may help rural farm and forest lands to store runoff and reduce flooding on farms and downstream communities and could be incorporated into a conservation program to provide payments for these efforts, which would supplement traditional farm incomes. Despite their potential, there have been very few methodical assessments and detailed summaries of NBS to date. We identified and summarized potential flood reduction practices for the Coastal Plain of North Carolina. These include agricultural practices of (1) cover cropping/no-till farming; (2) hardpan breakup; (3) pine or (4) hardwood afforestation, and (5) agroforestry; establishing the wetland and stream practices of (6) grass and sedge wetlands and earthen retention structures, (7) forest wetland banks, and (8) stream channel restoration; and establishing new structural solutions of (9) dry dams and berms (water farming) and (10) tile drainage and water retention. These practices offer different water holding and storage capacities and costs. A mixture of practices at the farm and landscape level can be implemented for floodwater retention and attenuation and damage reduction, as well as for providing additional farm and forest ecosystem services.}, number={16}, journal={SUSTAINABILITY}, publisher={MDPI AG}, author={Hovis, Meredith and Hollinger, Joseph Chris and Cubbage, Frederick and Shear, Theodore and Doll, Barbara and Kurki-Fox, J. Jack and Line, Daniel and Fox, Andrew and Baldwin, Madalyn and Klondike, Travis and et al.}, year={2021}, month={Aug} }
 @article{line_osmond_childres_2019, title={NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS IN THE PIEDMONT AND COASTAL PLAIN, NORTH CAROLINA}, volume={62}, ISSN={["2151-0040"]}, DOI={10.13031/trans.13052}, abstractNote={Abstract. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) input and export rates were determined in six rural, predominantly agricultural watersheds located in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain regions of North Carolina. Water quality monitoring was conducted at the outlets for 2.3 to 8.0 years to determine the annual N and P export from each watershed. Total N and P input and export from five of the six watersheds were correlated, with only a no-till cropland watershed differing. The correlation showed that N and P exports increased by about 4.0% and 8.7%, respectively, of applied N and P for the range of applications rates, whereas dissolved N (NO x -N) export increased by 2.8% with increasing N application rates. Therefore, practices that reduce inputs, such as nutrient management, should result in similar percentage reductions in exports. The Small Watershed Nutrient Forecasting Tool (SWIFT) was used to forecast discharge, N, P, and sediment export from each of the six watersheds. For the no-till cropland watershed, the SWIFT-forecasted N and P export rates were more than 2.5 times those measured, while the sediment export rate was 72 times the measured value. Thus, these data showed that the SWIFT forecasts for N, P, and sediment export were poor for the no-till cropland watershed. For the pasture watershed, the SWIFT forecasts for N and sediment export agreed reasonably well with measured export; however, the forecasted P export was much less than measured. For the four mixed land use watersheds, the SWIFT forecasts for discharge, TN, and sediment were mostly greater than measured, and the forecasted TP export was less than measured for three of the four watersheds. Thus, as with many predicstion tools, SWIFT results must be used with caution. Keywords: Nutrient export, Nutrient management practice, Water quality monitoring.}, number={5}, journal={TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASABE}, author={Line, D. E. and Osmond, D. L. and Childres, W.}, year={2019}, pages={1135–1145} }
 @article{tasdighi_arabi_harmel_line_2018, title={A Bayesian total uncertainty analysis framework for assessment of management practices using watershed models}, volume={108}, ISSN={["1873-6726"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.envsoft.2018.08.006}, abstractNote={A Bayesian total uncertainty analysis framework is presented to assess the model estimates of the effectiveness of watershed management practices in reducing nonpoint source (NPS) pollution. The framework entails a two-stage procedure. First, various sources of modeling uncertainties are characterized during the period before implementing Best Management Practices (BMPs). Second, the effectiveness of BMPs are probabilistically quantified during the post-BMP period. The framework was used to assess the uncertainties in effectiveness of two BMPs in reducing daily total nitrogen (TN) loads in a 54 ha agricultural watershed in North Carolina using the SWAT model. The results indicated that the modeling uncertainties in quantifying the effectiveness of selected BMPs were relatively large. Assessment of measured data uncertainty revealed that higher errors were observed in simulating TN loads during high flow events. The results of this study have important implications for decision-making under uncertainty when models are used for water quality simulation.}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING & SOFTWARE}, author={Tasdighi, Ali and Arabi, Mazdak and Harmel, Daren and Line, Daniel}, year={2018}, month={Oct}, pages={240–252} }
 @article{line_osmond_childres_2016, title={Effectiveness of Livestock Exclusion in a Pasture of Central North Carolina}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1537-2537"]}, DOI={10.2134/jeq2016.03.0089}, abstractNote={Reducing the export of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sediment from agricultural land in water-supply watersheds is a continuing goal in central North Carolina. The objective of this project was to document the effectiveness of a combination of livestock exclusion fencing and nutrient management implemented on a beef cattle pasture located in the Piedmont region of North Carolina. The quantity and quality of discharge from two predominantly pasture watersheds were monitored simultaneously for 3.8 yr before and after implementation of the exclusion fencing and nutrient management in the treatment watershed; a control watershed remained unchanged. The excluded stream corridor was intentionally minimized by constructing the fence line about 3 m from the top of the streambank on either side and limiting it to the main stream channel only. Monitoring included collecting flow-proportional samples during storm events and analyzing them for total Kjeldahl N (TKN), ammonia (NH3–N), and inorganic (NOx–N) N as well as total P (TP) and total suspended solids (TSS). Statistically significant reductions were observed in TKN (34%), NH3–N (54%), TP (47%), and TSS (60%) loads in the treatment relative to the control watershed after fencing, whereas storm discharge and NOx–N loads were not significantly different. These data show that even a relatively narrow exclusion corridor implemented on only the main stream channel can significantly reduce the export of N, P, and sediment from a beef cattle pasture. Core Ideas Document, through water quality monitoring, the effectiveness of livestock exclusion fencing Livestock exclusion reduced nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment export from a pasture. Statistical analysis is required to assess trends in water quality monitoring data.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY}, author={Line, Daniel E. and Osmond, Deanna L. and Childres, Wesley}, year={2016}, pages={1926–1932} }
 @article{line_white_2016, title={Runoff and Pollutant Export from a LID Subdivision in North Carolina}, volume={142}, ISSN={["1943-7870"]}, DOI={10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0001018}, abstractNote={AbstractStorm rainfall on and runoff from a 3.35-ha low-impact development (LID) residential subdivision in the Piedmont region of North Carolina were monitored for 6+ years, which included predevelopment, during-development, and postdevelopment phases. Runoff was monitored and sampled at two stations using automated samplers. Along with residences, the drainage area to one of the stations (PC1) included an undisturbed wooded riparian buffer with level spreaders to distribute runoff, while the area to the other station (PC2) included four bioretention areas, permeable pavement, a roof runoff collection system, a detention pond, and other LID measures. Monitoring results documented that the postdevelopment, runoff to rainfall ratio, and pollutant export at both stations were significantly greater than those of the predevelopment phase, during which time the land use on the site was mature woods. The total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and total suspended solids (TSS) export at both LID monitoring s...}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING}, author={Line, D. E. and White, N. M.}, year={2016}, month={Jan} }
 @article{line_2015, title={Effects of livestock exclusion and stream restoration on the water quality of a North Carolina stream}, volume={58}, number={6}, journal={Transactions of the ASABE}, author={Line, D. E.}, year={2015}, pages={1547–1557} }
 @article{wardynski_winston_line_hunt_2014, title={Metrics for assessing thermal performance of stormwater control measures}, volume={71}, ISSN={["1872-6992"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.07.068}, abstractNote={Urban runoff can impact the thermal regime of surface waters and degrade valuable aquatic ecosystems. Some stormwater control measures (SCMs) have been shown to mitigate the effects of thermally-enriched runoff, but previous studies lacked consistency when characterizing the thermal behavior of SCMs. Ecologically-relevant parameters such as maximum outflow temperature, duration of temperatures exceeding thresholds for coldwater species, and thermal load have all been considered in past research. Standard metrics that properly represent the downstream impacts of urban stormwater were needed. This paper evaluated thermal metrics to provide designers and regulators with catchment-scale methods for assessing thermal performance and compliance. It was concluded that multiple metrics must be employed to account for both thermal load and biologically-based reference temperature limits. Metrics for temperature evaluations were broken out by data requirements. When only SCM temperature data are available, event mean temperature estimation appears to be the most rigorous metric. Groundwater temperature may also be employed as a surrogate metric for SCM discharge temperatures if conservative protection of coldwater stream health is desired. When SCM temperature and flow data exist, thermal load reductions should be explored. Efficacy of the low impact development (LID) strategy for temperature mitigation (retaining onsite greater than the 95th percentile storm event) was evaluated using field-collected permeable pavement data. Based on these data, retaining the 95th percentile storm event was determined to be an effective technique for thermal protection of surface waters. However, the most rigorous metrics involve long-term temperature and flow data from local reference streams. The best metric currently available is the uniform continuous above threshold (UCAT) method, in which it is necessary to consider continuous exposure duration when comparing against biological thresholds. These analyses can be tailored to specific species of interest within a targeted ecoregion. Combined with thermal load and mixing analysis in-stream, the UCAT method can provide a real-world estimation of the impacts of development. Additionally, evaluation of mixing zones in-stream should also be employed to adequately assess thermal impacts. However, these methods are the most data intensive. The metrics discussed in this paper can be used to inform new and existing design methodologies for regulating stormwater temperature, duration, and thermal load.}, journal={ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING}, author={Wardynski, Brad J. and Winston, Ryan J. and Line, Daniel E. and Hunt, William F.}, year={2014}, month={Oct}, pages={551–562} }
 @article{line_hall_blackwell_2013, title={ESTIMATING SUSPENDED SOLIDS FROM TURBIDITY IN THE ROBESON CREEK, NC WATERSHED}, volume={49}, ISSN={["1752-1688"]}, DOI={10.1111/jawr.12094}, abstractNote={The purpose of this project was to assess the effect of estimating total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations from turbidity on TSS loads for streams in the Robeson Creek watershed. Discharge was monitored continuously and base-flow grab and storm event composite samples were collected and analyzed for TSS and turbidity from five sites during five years of monitoring. For base-flow samples, the TSS-turbidity relationship for all five sites was poor indicating that TSS concentrations in base flow cannot be estimated from a TSS-turbidity relationship. To test the effect of analyzing fewer samples, TSS from every third and the first 20 samples collected from each site was used to develop TSS-turbidity relationships. In addition, the TSS-turbidity relationship developed from the most downstream site was used to estimate TSS concentrations from turbidity measured at the other four sites. For four of the five sites, analyzing every third sample for TSS and using the TSS-turbidity relationship to estimate the missing TSS concentrations would result in mean TSS loads that were not significantly different from the observed. Using the TSS-turbidity relationship from the outlet to estimate TSS from turbidity measured at the other four sites resulted in significantly different mean TSS loads at three of the four sites. These results indicate that estimating TSS concentrations from turbidity using a TSS-turbidity relationship developed from a subset of the overall dataset should be done with great caution.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION}, author={Line, D. E. and Hall, K. R. and Blackwell, J. D.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={1412–1420} }
 @article{effectiveness of lid for commercial development in north carolina_2012, volume={138}, number={6}, journal={Journal of Environmental Engineering (New York, N.Y.)}, year={2012}, pages={680–688} }
 @article{brown_line_hunt_2012, title={LID Treatment Train: Pervious Concrete with Subsurface Storage in Series with Bioretention and Care with Seasonal High Water Tables}, volume={138}, ISSN={["1943-7870"]}, DOI={10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0000506}, abstractNote={Two infiltrating low-impact development (LID) practices configured in-series, pervious concrete and bioretention (PC-B), were monitored for 17 months to examine the hydrologic and water quality response of this LID treatment train design. For the first LID practice, 0.53 ha of pervious concrete was installed to treat direct rainfall and run-on from 0.36 ha of asphalt parking lot. The pervious concrete was installed over a gravel subsurface storage basin, which was designed to store 25 mm (1 in.) of runoff from the parking lot before draining into the second LID practice, which was a 0.05 ha bioretention cell. The bioretention cell was conventionally drained, had a media depth of 0.5 m (1.6 ft), and was constructed at a location with a high water table. Outflow was only generated in 33 out of 80 monitored events, and over the course of the entire monitoring period, the total outflow volume reduction was 69%. The large outflow reduction subsequently led to high pollutant load reductions for total nitrogen (49%), total phosphorus (51%), and total suspended solids (89%). However, when the contribution of base flow was included in the calculation, the total nitrogen load discharged from the bioretention cell was 64% higher than that of the runoff load because of nitrite and nitrate, NO2- and NO3-(NO2,3-N), which were present in the base flow. The total nitrogen (TN) loads of runoff, storm flow (total outflow minus base flow), base flow, and outflow (total) were 7.70, 3.94, 8.69, and 12.64 kg/ha·year, respectively. Of the 8.69 kg/ha·year TN in the base flow, 92% was in the form of NO2,3-N. This study demonstrated the hydrologic benefits (peak flow and outflow reduction) gained by having two infiltration LID practices in-series. When compared with a single treatment practice (bioretention) that was monitored at the same site, the two LID practices in-series treated an additional 10% of annual runoff volume, discharged approximately one-half as much outflow volume, and discharged significantly lower peak outflow rates. However, the water quality results were not as promising because of the influx of groundwater in the bioretention cell and the lack of denitrifying conditions in either the bioretention cell or pervious concrete system. This study also quantified increased TN and NO2,3-N export to surface waters from a bioretention cell that was situated in an area with a high water table.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING}, author={Brown, R. A. and Line, D. E. and Hunt, W. F.}, year={2012}, month={Jun}, pages={689–697} }
 @article{debusk_hunt_line_2011, title={Bioretention Outflow: Does It Mimic Nonurban Watershed Shallow Interflow?}, volume={16}, ISSN={["1943-5584"]}, DOI={10.1061/(asce)he.1943-5584.0000315}, abstractNote={Bioretention, a key structural practice of low impact development (LID), has been proved to decrease peak flow rates and volumes, promote infiltration and evapotranspiration, and improve water quality. Exactly how well bioretention mimics predevelopment (or “natural”) hydrology is an important research question. Do bioretention outflow rates mirror shallow groundwater interevent stream recharge flow associated with natural or nonurban watersheds? Streamflow from three small, nonurban watersheds, located in Piedmont, part of central North Carolina, was compared with bioretention outflow from four cells also in North Carolina’s Piedmont region. Each benchmark watershed drained to a small stream, where flow rate was monitored for an extended period of time. After normalizing the flow rates and volumes by watershed size, data were combined to form two data sets: bioretention outflow and stream interevent flow. Results indicate that there is no statistical difference between flow rates in streams draining undeveloped watersheds and bioretention outflow rates for the first 24 h following the commencement of flow. Similarly, there is no statistical difference between the cumulative volumes released by the two systems during the 48 h following the start of flow. These results indicate that bioretention cells behave comparably to watersheds in natural or nonurban conditions, with respect to both flow rates and flow volumes, and suggest that bioretention outflows may mirror post–storm event shallow groundwater interevent stream recharge flow. Solely considering bioretention outflow as a conjugate to runoff may be a misinterpretation of a flowrate that actually resembles shallow interflow.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING}, author={DeBusk, Kathy M. and Hunt, William F. and Line, Daniel E.}, year={2011}, month={Mar}, pages={274–279} }
 @article{constructed storm-water wetland installation and maintenance: are we getting it right?_2011, volume={137}, number={8}, journal={Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering}, year={2011}, pages={469–474} }
 @article{line_shaffer_blackwell_2011, title={Sediment export from a highway construction site in central North Carolina}, volume={54}, DOI={10.13031/2013.36264}, abstractNote={Sediment export and turbid runoff from active construction sites continue to be a source of impairment to surface water resources. Few studies have been published that include monitoring data from construction sites, particularly highway construction sites. In this study, water quality monitoring of runoff originating from three sections of a highway construction corridor was conducted during a 4.5-year period. Two unnamed tributaries, referred to as Tilly and Ellery for this study, were monitored at two locations downstream of the highway corridor, and one tributary, referred to as King's Mill, was monitored upstream and downstream of the highway corridor. At each station, discharge was continuously monitored and flow-proportional samples were collected. Samples were analyzed for total suspended solids, total solids, and turbidity. A recording raingauge was also maintained at one of the highway monitoring stations. Monitoring data at all stations documented increased sediment export and turbidity levels during the construction period as compared to the pre- and post-construction periods. During construction, sediment export rates ranged from 2.7 to 17.7 Mg ha-1 year-1, while mean turbidity levels ranged from 466 to 1,607 NTU for the five stations downstream of the highway corridor. For the station with the greatest sediment export, about 32% of the export occurred during two back-to-back tropical storms. At this time, one section of the highway was particularly susceptible to erosion because more than 6 m of fill material had recently been added to bring the road surface to near grade and vegetation had not yet been established. Increases in sediment export and turbidity at the other four downstream stations during highway construction were less pronounced. Mean turbidity levels during construction at all downstream stations were greater than 50 NTU. Post-construction mean turbidity levels were much less than during construction but were still greater than pre-construction at four of the five stations. Post-construction turbidity levels on the King's Mill tributary downstream of the highway were not significantly different from upstream.}, number={1}, journal={Transactions of the ASABE}, author={Line, D. E. and Shaffer, M. B. and Blackwell, J. D.}, year={2011}, pages={105–111} }
 @article{patchanee_molla_white_line_gebreyes_2010, title={Tracking Salmonella Contamination in Various Watersheds and Phenotypic and Genotypic Diversity}, volume={7}, ISSN={["1556-7125"]}, DOI={10.1089/fpd.2010.0572}, abstractNote={Salmonella enterica is an important foodborne pathogen, and contamination of surface and ground water that may result from various human activities, such as animal production and urbanization, may contribute to the public health burden. The aims of this study was to determine the sources of Salmonella contamination in four different types of watersheds and to assess the relative contribution of multidrug-resistant strains. Eighty-six water samples collected from four different watershed systems, including those impacted by swine production (n = 12), residential/industrial (n = 34), crop agriculture (n = 12), and forestry (n = 28), were cultured for Salmonella and further characterized by serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis genotyping. Salmonella prevalence was high in all four watersheds: residential/industrial area (58.8%), forestry (57.1%), crop agriculture (50%), and swine production (41.7%). Majority of the Salmonella isolates (87.1%) were pansusceptible. Multidrug resistance up to eight antimicrobials (R-type: AmStTeAxChCeKmGm) was detected in water samples that originated from swine production systems only. Serovars identified included Anatum, Gaminara, and Inverness (18.3% each) and Muenchen and Newport (8.7% each), Bredeny (7.6%), and Montevideo (6.8%). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis indicated genotypic relatedness among Salmonella recovered from residential/industrial and forestry-associated watersheds (genotypic cluster types A, C, D, E, F, G, H, and J), sites with relatively close geographic proximity. Swine-production-associated isolates were distinctly different from the others (genotypic cluster types B and I), corroborating the phenotypic findings. Overall, the findings suggest that all the various watersheds, including natural forest, remain important contributors of Salmonella contamination. While swine-production-associated water samples were not found to have a disproportionately high prevalence, it was the most important reservoir of multidrug-resistant strains.}, number={9}, journal={FOODBORNE PATHOGENS AND DISEASE}, author={Patchanee, Prapas and Molla, Bayleyegn and White, Nancy and Line, Daniel E. and Gebreyes, Wondwossen A.}, year={2010}, month={Sep}, pages={1113–1120} }
 @article{passeport_hunt_line_smith_brown_2009, title={Field Study of the Ability of Two Grassed Bioretention Cells to Reduce Storm-Water Runoff Pollution}, volume={135}, ISSN={["1943-4774"]}, DOI={10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000006}, abstractNote={Two grassed bioretention cells including internal storage zones (ISZs) were monitored for 16 months in central North Carolina. Each cell had a surface area of 106 m2 and fill media depths were 0.75 and 1.05 m for the north (North) and the south (South) cells, respectively. Asphalt parking lot inflow and outflows were analyzed for nitrogen and phosphorus forms and fecal coliform (FC). Outflow volumes and peak flows for individual storms were generally less than those of inflow. Overall, except for N O2,3 –N , effluent nitrogen species event mean concentrations (EMCs) and loads were significantly (α=0.05) lower than those of the inflow, and nitrogen species load reductions ranged from 47 to 88%. Apart from fall and winter, during which a longer hydraulic contact time seemed to be needed, the ISZs appeared to improve denitrification. Total phosphorus (TP) and OP O4 -P EMCs were significantly lower than those of the inlet. Reductions were 58% (South) and 63% (North) for TP and 78% (North) and 74% (South) for ...}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING}, author={Passeport, Elodie and Hunt, William F. and Line, Daniel E. and Smith, Ryan A. and Brown, Robert A.}, year={2009}, pages={505–510} }
 @article{line_hunt_2009, title={Performance of a bioretention area and a level spreader-grass filter strip at two highway sites in North Carolina}, volume={135}, DOI={10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2009)135:2(217)}, abstractNote={The pollutant removal efficiency of a bioretention area and a level spreader-grass filter strip implemented at North Carolina highway facilities was assessed. The assessment consisted of monitoring inflow, outflow, and on-site rainfall for at least 13 storm events. Monitoring included continuous discharge measurement and collecting and analyzing flow-proportional samples for each event. All samples were analyzed for solids, turbidity, and nitrogen and phosphorus forms and selected samples were analyzed for metals. The level spreader-grass filter strip had the best overall efficiency with load reduction efficiencies in all pollutants ranging from 24 to 83% and the highest reduction for total suspended solids (TSS). Much of the efficiency of this best management practice can be attributed to the 49% reduction in runoff volume from inflow to outflow. Pollutant reduction efficiencies for the bioretention area ranged from −254 to 76% with the highest reduction for TSS. The lowest or large negative efficiency w...}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering}, author={Line, D. E. and Hunt, W. F.}, year={2009}, pages={217–224} }
 @article{line_jennings_shaffer_calabria_hunt_2008, title={Evaluating the effectiveness of two stormwater wetlands in North Carolina}, volume={51}, number={2}, journal={Transactions of the ASABE}, author={Line, D. E. and Jennings, G. D. and Shaffer, M. B. and Calabria, J. and Hunt, W. F.}, year={2008}, pages={521–528} }
 @article{line_white_kirby-smith_potts_2008, title={Fecal coliform export from four coastal North Carolina areas}, volume={44}, ISSN={["1752-1688"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1752-1688.2008.00185.x}, abstractNote={Abstract: Fecal coliform (FC) bacteria in coastal waters impair the use of these waters for shellfish harvesting and recreation. This study was designed to quantify and compare FC levels and export in two coastal watersheds with different land uses. Continuous monitoring of rainfall and discharge at three sites in the Jumping Run Creek watershed and one site in the Pettiford Creek watershed were conducted during a 4.5-year period. Primary land use in the drainage area of one of the three Jumping Run Creek sites is low density industrial, while the other two are residential. Land use in the Pettiford Creek watershed is managed national forest. Nonstorm or base-flow grab and flow-proportional storm-event samples were collected and analyzed for turbidity, conductivity, suspended sediment, nitrogen, phosphorus, and FC. Geometric mean FC levels for the Jumping Run Creek monitoring sites ranged from 593 to 2,096 mpn/100 ml, while the mean level at the Pettiford Creek site was 191 mpn/100 ml. Levels of most other parameters were greater in storm discharge from the Jumping Run Creek sites as compared to Pettiford Creek indicating that pollutant export from a watershed increases with development. Statistical analysis of the monitoring data suggested that FC levels in stormwater samples consistently increased with storm rainfall, but were not consistently correlated with any other parameter, including total suspended solids. Multivariate analysis indicated that the weekly FC export for each of the four sites was lowest during the December-February quarter. Export was highest during the spring and summer at the Jumping Run Creek sites, while for the Pettiford Creek site, FC export was highest during September-November. The cause of the seasonal variability was unknown but was thought to be associated with human activity in the watersheds.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION}, author={Line, D. E. and White, N. M. and Kirby-Smith, W. W. and Potts, J. D.}, year={2008}, month={Jun}, pages={606–617} }
 @article{moore_mclaughlin_mitasova_line_2007, title={Calibrating WEPP model parameters for erosion prediction on construction sites}, volume={50}, DOI={10.13031/2013.22639}, abstractNote={Soil erosion on construction sites can be many times greater than on agricultural fields, yet there has been little modeling done for construction conditions. The objective of our study was to calibrate management and soil parameters in the agriculturally based model Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) for construction and post-construction site conditions. Data from a 4 ha watershed at various stages of construction in Wake County, North Carolina, were used to compare model results with measured runoff volume and sediment yields. Model simulations were performed in GeoWEPP, a geospatial interface designed for WEPP that operates within ArcView GIS. Model parameters were adjusted from WEPP default parameters as supported by the literature and site observations. Predicted values were regressed against field data for Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency (NSE), with NSE > 0.50 regarded as satisfactory performance. We were able to generate runoff and sediment yields comparable to observed values by replacing soil surface properties with subsoil properties, in conjunction with the cutslope management parameter file in WEPP. We found a similar agreement between predicted and observed values for stabilized conditions by increasing critical shear stress from 0.3 to 10 Pa for the soil input layer. In addition, changes to the model source code to reduce the lower limit of effective hydraulic conductivity (Kef) for impermeable surfaces resulted in improved runoff NSE, but consequently increased sediment yield on areas with higher Kef values. WEPP has great potential for modeling applications on construction sites; however, more validation studies are needed to confirm and expand upon our findings.}, number={2}, journal={Transactions of the ASABE}, author={Moore, A. D. and McLaughlin, R. A. and Mitasova, H. and Line, D. E.}, year={2007}, pages={507–516} }
 @article{line_white_2007, title={Effects of development on runoff and pollutant export}, volume={79}, ISSN={["1554-7531"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143006X111736}, abstractNote={Runoff from two similar drainage areas in the Piedmont physiographic region of North Carolina was monitored simultaneously for 5.6 years. One of the drainage areas was developed as part of a large residential subdivision, while the other remained in woods and agricultural fields. Runoff volume was 68% greater for the developed compared with the undeveloped area, and baseflow as a percentage of overall discharge was approximately 0% compared with 25% for the undeveloped area. Overall annual export of sediment was 95% greater for the developed area, while export of nitrogen and phosphorus forms was 66 to 88% greater for the developed area. These results document the significant increases in runoff, sediment, and nutrient export associated with residential development.}, number={2}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, D. E. and White, N. M.}, year={2007}, month={Feb}, pages={185–190} }
 @article{line_2003, title={Changes in a stream's physical and biological conditions following livestock exclusion}, volume={46}, DOI={10.13031/2013.12979}, abstractNote={Runoff from dairy cow pastures can degrade the quality of surface waters. Weekly grab samples were collected
for 7.5 years from a small stream draining a 56.7–ha, mostly dairy cow pasture and analyzed for fecal coliform and enterococci
(streptococci). In situ measurements of pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, conductivity, and turbidity were made during most
grab sampling events. Fecal coliform and enterococci levels for samples collected during the 2.25 years prior to the
installation of livestock exclusion fencing were more than 300% greater at the downstream monitoring station compared to
the upstream station. After fencing, fecal coliform and enterococci levels decreased 65.9% and 57.0%, respectively. The
decreased bacteria levels were significantly different, indicating that livestock exclusion fencing was effective at reducing
bacteria levels in the stream. 
While the levels of dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and specific conductivity downstream relative to upstream following
fencing generally documented improved water quality, the changes were not statistically significant. Conversely, decreases
in turbidity and suspended sediment levels following fencing were significantly different. 
Levels of most of the physical parameters and bacteria were not significantly different at the upstream monitoring site
following the installation of the alternate water supply in the pasture upstream. Thus, the alternate water supply, without
fencing, was not effective at improving water quality in the upper pasture.}, number={2}, journal={Transactions of the ASAE}, author={Line, D. E.}, year={2003}, pages={287–293} }
 @article{line_2002, title={Changes in land use/management and water quality in the long creek watershed}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1093-474X"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1752-1688.2002.tb04374.x}, abstractNote={: Surface water in the Long Creek watershed, located in western Piedmont region of North Carolina, was monitored from 1993 to 2001. The 8,190 ha watershed has undergone considerable land use and management changes during this period. Land use surveys have documented a 60 percent decrease in cropland area and a more than 200 percent increase in areas being developed into new homes. In addition, more than 200 conservation practices have been applied to the cropland and other agricultural land that remains in production. The water quality of Long Creek was monitored by collecting grab samples at four sites along Long Creek and continuously monitoring discharge at one site. The monitoring has documented a 70 percent reduction in median total phosphorus (TP) concentrations, with little reductions in nitrate and total Kjel-dahl nitrogen, or suspended sediment levels. Fecal coliform (FC) and streptococci (FS) levels declined significantly downstream as compared to upstream during the last four years of monitoring. This decrease was attributed to the implementation of waste management practices and livestock exclusion fencing on three dairy operations in the watershed. Annual rainfall and discharge increased steadily until peaking in the third year of the monitoring period and varied while generally decreasing during the last four years of the project. An array of observation, pollutant concentration, and hydrologic data provide considerable evidence to suggest that the implementation of BMPs in the watershed have significantly reduced phosphorus and bacteria levels in Long Creek.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION}, author={Line, DE}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={1691–1701} }
 @article{line_white_osmond_jennings_mojonnier_2002, title={Pollutant export from various land uses in the upper Neuse River Basin}, volume={74}, ISSN={["1061-4303"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143002X139794}, abstractNote={Because of the relatively high variability of pollutant export from urban land uses, a significant number of monitoring studies, including data from many storms, are needed to adequately characterize export from urban land uses. Pollutant runoff from six small drainage areas with different land uses was monitored for at least 20 storm events over the course of more than 1 year. The land uses included single-family residential, golf course, industrial, dairy cow pasture, construction site, and wooded site. Average event mean concentrations and total annual load were computed for nitrogen forms, total phosphorus, and sediment from the land uses. Annual total nitrogen export was greatest for the construction land use during the house-building phase, followed closely by the residential and golf course land uses. Total phosphorus export was greatest for the golf course site followed by the pasture and residential land uses. Sediment export was greatest for the construction site during the rough grading phase, which averaged more than 10 times more sediment export than any of the other sites. To estimate export from a multiuse urban watershed, total nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment export from the residential, golf course, and construction sites were averaged. The average total nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment export from the three land uses was, respectively, 269, 302, and 256% greater than the corresponding exports from the wooded site, which was considered similar to the predevelopment land use. Additionally, analyses of rainfall samples indicated that a considerable portion of the nitrogen export from these sites likely comes from nitrogen in rainfall.}, number={1}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, DE and White, NM and Osmond, DL and Jennings, GD and Mojonnier, CB}, year={2002}, pages={100–108} }
 @article{line_white_2001, title={Efficiencies of temporary sediment traps on two North Carolina construction sites}, volume={44}, DOI={10.13031/2013.6451}, abstractNote={Sediment export from construction sites is receiving increasing scrutiny, and correspondingly the efficiencies of
sediment controls are being questioned. Sediment or total suspended solids (TSS) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations
in outflow from, as well as sediment accumulation, in three temporary sediment traps located on North Carolina construction
sites were monitored to assess the efficiencies of the traps. The trapping efficiency of the trap located on a Coastal Plain site
(Woodsong) was 69%, while the efficiencies of two traps located on a Piedmont site (Carpenter) averaged 59%. In addition,
the Carpenter trap retained 30% of the TP coming off the site, while the Woodsong trap retained 9%. Sediment size analyses
of a limited number of samples indicated that the Woodsong trap retained 91%, 43%, and 21% of the sand, silt, and clay
primary particles entering the trap, while the Carpenter traps retained 68%, 72%, and 40% of the sand, silt, and clay particles
entering it. The turbidity of outflow samples was also measured and correlated to TSS concentrations. A relatively strong
linear correlation was found for data from the Carpenter traps (r2 = 0.96), and a weaker correlation was documented for the
Woodsong trap (r2 = 0.64). These data indicate that for sites with high TSS concentrations in runoff and relatively little organic
matter left on the site, TSS may be computed from turbidity; however, more data is needed to confirm this assertion.}, number={5}, journal={Transactions of the ASAE}, author={Line, D. E. and White, N. M.}, year={2001}, pages={1207–1215} }
 @article{white_line_potts_kirby-smith_doll_hunt_2000, title={Jump Run Creek Shellfish Restoration Project}, volume={19}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Shellfish Research}, author={White, N. M. and Line, D. E. and Potts, J. D. and Kirby-Smith, W. and Doll, B. and Hunt, W. F.}, year={2000}, pages={473–476} }
 @article{line_harman_jennings_thompson_osmond_2000, title={Nonpoint-source pollutant load reductions associated with livestock exclusion}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0047-2425"]}, DOI={10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900060022x}, abstractNote={Cattle (Bos taurus) grazing on unimproved pastures can be a significant, yet often overlooked, source of pollutants to surface waters, especially when the cattle have unlimited access to streams in the pastures. Livestock exclusion from streams has been demonstrated to reduce sediment and possibly nutrient yield from streams draining pastures. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of excluding dairy cows from, and planting trees in, a 335-m-long and 10- to 16-m- wide riparian corridor along a small North Carolina stream. Analysis of 81 wk of pre-exclusion and 137 wk of post-exclusion fencing data documented 33, 78, 76, and 82% reductions in weekly nitrate + nitrite, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total phosphorus (TP), and sediment loads, respectively, from the 14.9-ha pasture area adjacent to the fenced section of stream. Statistical analyses by t-tests and analysis of variance suggested that the reductions in mean weekly loads post-fencing were significant (P < 0.05) for all pollutants except nitrate + nitrite. Thus, the results indicated that livestock exclusion and subsequent riparian vegetation establishment was effective at reducing pollutant export from an intensively grazed pasture.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY}, author={Line, DE and Harman, WA and Jennings, GD and Thompson, EJ and Osmond, DL}, year={2000}, pages={1882–1890} }
 @misc{line_jennings_mclaughlin_osmond_harman_lombardo_tweedy_spooner_1999, title={Nonpoint sources}, volume={71}, ISSN={["1554-7531"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143099X133965}, abstractNote={Water Environment ResearchVolume 71, Issue 5 p. 1054-1069 Fate and Effect of PollutantFree Access Nonpoint Sources Daniel E. Line, Daniel E. LineSearch for more papers by this authorGregory D. Jennings, Gregory D. JenningsSearch for more papers by this authorRichard A. McLaughlin, Richard A. McLaughlinSearch for more papers by this authorDeanna L. Osmond, Deanna L. OsmondSearch for more papers by this authorWilliam A. Harman, William A. HarmanSearch for more papers by this authorLaura A. Lombardo, Laura A. LombardoSearch for more papers by this authorKevin L. Tweedy, Kevin L. TweedySearch for more papers by this authorJean Spooner, Jean SpoonerSearch for more papers by this author Daniel E. Line, Daniel E. LineSearch for more papers by this authorGregory D. Jennings, Gregory D. JenningsSearch for more papers by this authorRichard A. McLaughlin, Richard A. McLaughlinSearch for more papers by this authorDeanna L. Osmond, Deanna L. OsmondSearch for more papers by this authorWilliam A. Harman, William A. HarmanSearch for more papers by this authorLaura A. Lombardo, Laura A. LombardoSearch for more papers by this authorKevin L. Tweedy, Kevin L. TweedySearch for more papers by this authorJean Spooner, Jean SpoonerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 15 August 1999 https://doi.org/10.2175/106143099X133965Citations: 13AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume71, Issue51999 Literature ReviewAugust 1999Pages 1054-1069 RelatedInformation}, number={5}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, DE and Jennings, GD and McLaughlin, RA and Osmond, DL and Harman, WA and Lombardo, LA and Tweedy, KL and Spooner, J}, year={1999}, month={Aug}, pages={1054–1069} }
 @article{line_harman_jennings_1998, title={Comparing sampling schemes for monitoring pollutant export from a dairy pasture}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1752-1688"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1752-1688.1998.tb05430.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT: Dairy cow pastures and feeding areas around barns can be a significant source of nonpoint source pollutants to nearby streams. To help document the significance of these sources, nutrient export in streamfiow from a 56.7-ha, mostly agricultural, watershed located in southwestern North Carolina was monitored from August 1994 to January 1996. Total nitrogen and phosphorus export rates from the upper, predominantly pasture, part of the watershed were 18.0 and 1.4 kg/ha/yr, respectively, as measured by weekly grab sampling and 18.7 and 4.9 kg/halyr, respectively, as measured from storm event monitoring. Nitrogen and phosphorus export rates for the area between the monitoring sites, which included overgrazed cow holding and feeding areas and farm buildings, were 376 and 86 kgfhalyr, respectively, for grab sampling and 351 and 160 kg/ha/yr, respectively, for storm event monitoring. To estimate the amount of reduction from nonpoint source controls necessary to effect a significant reduction in pollutant loading, statistical analyses of the load data were conducted. The analyses for the five pollutants monitored showed that total suspended solids would require the greatest reduction (34.6 percent for weekly grab and 33.6 percent for storm) in loading after the implementation of controls for statistical significance. Nitrate plus nitrite was found to require the least reduction (12.6 percent for weekly grab). Pollutant export rates computed from weekly grab samples and storm event samples used separately were compared to corresponding export rates computed from combining grab and storm event samples to assess the differences in monitoring schemes.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION}, author={Line, DE and Harman, WA and Jennings, GD}, year={1998}, month={Dec}, pages={1265–1273} }
 @misc{line_mclaughlin_osmond_jennings_harman_lombardo_spooner_1998, title={Nonpoint sources}, volume={70}, ISSN={["1554-7531"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143098X134514}, abstractNote={Water Environment ResearchVolume 70, Issue 4 p. 895-912 Fate and Effect of PollutantFree Access Nonpoint sources Daniel E. Line, Daniel E. LineSearch for more papers by this authorRichard A. McLaughlin, Richard A. McLaughlinSearch for more papers by this authorDeanna L. Osmond, Deanna L. OsmondSearch for more papers by this authorGregory D. Jennings, Gregory D. JenningsSearch for more papers by this authorWilliam A. Harman, William A. HarmanSearch for more papers by this authorLaura A. Lombardo, Laura A. LombardoSearch for more papers by this authorJean Spooner, Jean SpoonerSearch for more papers by this author Daniel E. Line, Daniel E. LineSearch for more papers by this authorRichard A. McLaughlin, Richard A. McLaughlinSearch for more papers by this authorDeanna L. Osmond, Deanna L. OsmondSearch for more papers by this authorGregory D. Jennings, Gregory D. JenningsSearch for more papers by this authorWilliam A. Harman, William A. HarmanSearch for more papers by this authorLaura A. Lombardo, Laura A. LombardoSearch for more papers by this authorJean Spooner, Jean SpoonerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 15 June 1998 https://doi.org/10.2175/106143098X134514Citations: 10AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Citing Literature Volume70, Issue41998 Literature ReviewJune 1998Pages 895-912 RelatedInformation}, number={4}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, DE and McLaughlin, RA and Osmond, DL and Jennings, GD and Harman, WA and Lombardo, LA and Spooner, J}, year={1998}, month={Jun}, pages={895–912} }
 @misc{line_osmond_coffey_mclaughlin_jennings_gale_spooner_1997, title={Nonpoint sources}, volume={69}, ISSN={["1554-7531"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143097X135055}, abstractNote={Water Environment ResearchVolume 69, Issue 4 p. 844-860 Fate and Effect of PollutantFree Access Nonpoint sources Daniel E. Line, Daniel E. LineSearch for more papers by this authorDeanna L. Osmond, Deanna L. OsmondSearch for more papers by this authorSteven W. Coffey, Steven W. CoffeySearch for more papers by this authorRichard A. McLaughlin, Richard A. McLaughlinSearch for more papers by this authorGregory D. Jennings, Gregory D. JenningsSearch for more papers by this authorJudith A. Gale, Judith A. GaleSearch for more papers by this authorJean Spooner, Jean SpoonerSearch for more papers by this author Daniel E. Line, Daniel E. LineSearch for more papers by this authorDeanna L. Osmond, Deanna L. OsmondSearch for more papers by this authorSteven W. Coffey, Steven W. CoffeySearch for more papers by this authorRichard A. McLaughlin, Richard A. McLaughlinSearch for more papers by this authorGregory D. Jennings, Gregory D. JenningsSearch for more papers by this authorJudith A. Gale, Judith A. GaleSearch for more papers by this authorJean Spooner, Jean SpoonerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 15 June 1997 https://doi.org/10.2175/106143097X135055Citations: 10AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume69, Issue41997 Literature ReviewJune 1997Pages 844-860 RelatedInformation}, number={4}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, DE and Osmond, DL and Coffey, SW and McLaughlin, RA and Jennings, GD and Gale, JA and Spooner, J}, year={1997}, month={Jun}, pages={844–860} }
 @book{osmond_line_spooner_1997, title={Section 319 National Monitoring Program: An overview}, publisher={Raleigh, N.C.: N.C. Cooperative Extension Service}, author={Osmond, D. L. and Line, D. E. and Spooner, J.}, year={1997} }
 @article{line_coffey_osmond_1997, title={WATERSHEDSS grass-AGNPS model tool}, volume={40}, DOI={10.13031/2013.21348}, abstractNote={A modeling tool that utilizes a raster-based geographic information system to build an input file for thespatially distributed pollutant runoff model, AGNPS, was developed as a component of the WATERSHEDSS decisionsupport system. In addition to automatically computing input data from basic soils, topography, and land use maps, thismodeling tool adds the capability to input point source, channel characteristic, and pesticide application data for userselectedareas in the watershed. The tool was used to simulate runoff and sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus loads for asmall gaged watershed located in North Carolina. Output from the tool was compared to observed runoff and pollutantloads for 11 storms. Statistical comparisons between observed and model-simulated loads at two monitoring stationsshowed no significant difference between observed and predicted runoff volumes and nitrogen, phosphorus, and sedimentloads, indicating that the modeling tool provides reasonable estimates of pollutant loads from storm events.}, number={4}, journal={Transactions of the ASAE}, author={Line, D. E. and Coffey, S. W. and Osmond, Deanna}, year={1997}, pages={971–975} }
 @article{osmond_gannon_gale_line_knott_phillips_turner_foster_lehning_coffey_et al._1997, title={WATERSHEDSS: A decision support system for watershed-scale nonpoint source water quality problems}, volume={33}, ISSN={["0043-1370"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1752-1688.1997.tb03513.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT: A significant portion of all pollutants entering surface waters (streams, lakes, estuaries, and wetlands) derives from non-point source (NPS) pollution and, in particular, agricultural activities. The first step in restoring a water resource is to focus on the primary water quality problem in the watershed. The most appropriate NPS control measures, which include best management practices (BMPs) and landscape features, such as wetlands and riparian areas, can then be selected and positioned to minimize or mitigate the identified pollutant(s). A computer-based decision sup. port and educational software system, WATERSHEDSS (WATER, Soil, and Hydro-Environmental Decision Support System), has been developed to aid managers in defining their water quality problems and selecting appropriate NPS control measures. The three primary objectives of WATERSHEDSS are (1) to transfer water quality and land treatment information to watershed managers in order to assist them with appropriate land management/land treatment decisions; (2) to assess NPS pollution in a watershed based on user-supplied information and decisions; and (3) to evaluate, through geographical information systems-assisted modeling, the water quality effects of alternative land treatment scenarios. WATERSHEDSS is available on the World Wide Web (Web) at http://h2osparc.wq.ncsu.edu.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION}, author={Osmond, DL and Gannon, RW and Gale, JA and Line, DE and Knott, CB and Phillips, KA and Turner, MH and Foster, MA and Lehning, DE and Coffey, SW and et al.}, year={1997}, month={Apr}, pages={327–341} }
 @article{line_wu_arnold_jennings_rubin_1997, title={Water quality of first flush runoff from 20 industrial sites}, volume={69}, ISSN={["1061-4303"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143097X125489}, abstractNote={A sampling program was conducted to assess the quality of first flush storm water runoff from 10 industrial groups typical of many businesses located in North Carolina. Analysis of samples collected during the first 30 min of runoff (first flush) indicated that zinc and copper were the most common of the eight metals measured in runoff from the 20 industrial sites monitored. Ten volatile organic, semivolatile organic, or pesticide compounds were found at eight different sites, with the most common being methylene chloride (three sites). Conventional pollutants such as nutrients and solids were measured at varying levels at every site, but were generally the highest where a significant amount of biological waste or exposed soil was present.}, number={3}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, DE and Wu, J and Arnold, JA and Jennings, GD and Rubin, AR}, year={1997}, pages={305–310} }
 @misc{line_osmond_gannon_coffey_jennings_gale_spooner_1996, title={Nonpoint sources}, volume={68}, ISSN={["1554-7531"]}, DOI={10.2175/106143096x135597}, number={4}, journal={WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH}, author={Line, DE and Osmond, DL and Gannon, RW and Coffey, SW and Jennings, GD and Gale, JA and Spooner, J}, year={1996}, pages={720–733} }
 @article{line_arnold_jennings_wu_1996, title={Water quality of stormwater runoff from ten industrial sites}, volume={32}, DOI={10.1111/j.1752-1688.1996.tb03478.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT: This study was to designed to determine concentrations of selected metals, organic compounds, pesticides, and conventional pollutants in stormwater runoff from two North Carolina businesses in each of the following five general industrial groups: auto salvage, metal fabrication, scrap and recycling, vehicle maintenance, and wood preserving facilities. The sampling procedure involved collecting a first flush sample of runoff from a single storm event and both first flush and composite samples of runoff from three consecutive storm events. Analysis of samples collected during the first flush indicated that zinc and copper were the most common of the 13 metals included in the analysis. Additional analysis documented that several volatile organic, semi-volatile organic, or pesticide compounds including acrolein, methylene chloride, xylenes, toluene, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, pentachlorophenol, and aldrin were also found in the first flush samples. Concentrations of aggregate organics, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment were determined in both first flush and three-hour composite samples. Concentrations of pollutants in first flush samples were similar to those in corresponding composite samples.}, number={4}, journal={Water Resources Bulletin}, author={Line, D. E. and Arnold, J. A. and Jennings, G. D. and Wu, J.}, year={1996}, pages={807} }
 @article{line_osmond_arnold_coffey_spooner_jennings_1995, title={Nonpoint sources}, volume={67}, number={4}, journal={Research Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation}, author={Line, D. E. and Osmond, D. L. and Arnold, J. A. and Coffey, S. W. and Spooner, J. and Jennings, G. D.}, year={1995}, pages={685} }