@article{carroll_bevis_el-sabawi_figgatt_dasgupta_beletsky_leiberman_dennis_davis_2023, title={A discussion of critical errors in a longitudinal study on the deterrent effect of drug-induced homicide laws on opioid-related mortality across 92 counties and the District of Columbia in the United States}, volume={5}, ISSN={["1948-4682"]}, DOI={10.1002/wmh3.570}, abstractNote={Drug overdose claimed more than 100,000 lives in the United States in 2021. Drug-induced homicide (DIH) laws create specific criminal liability for individuals who provide drugs that cause or contribute to the death of another person. DIH prosecutions in the United States have increased substantially over the past decade despite the absence of meaningful evidence of their individual- or community-level impacts. Recently, Lee et al. analyzed the impact of DIH laws on county-level opioid overdose mortality across 92 counties in 10 states and concluded that DIH laws are associated with significant reductions in rates of opioid overdose death. In this commentary, we present evidence demonstrating that the Lee et al. study is fundamentally flawed. Specifically, the legal data used by Lee et al. to define their treatment condition (the presence or absence of a state-level DIH law) is incorrect in almost every aspect. We also describe significant methodological weaknesses, including flawed sampling strategies that resulted in a biased sample of county overdose rates as well as flawed modeling strategies that cannot effectively evaluate the hypothesis that DIH laws negatively impact opioid overdose mortality. More research on the individual- and community-level impacts of DIH laws is needed. In the meantime, we advise policymakers to strengthen state 911 Good Samaritan laws, as DIH laws appear to erode the efficacy of this proven overdose-prevention strategy. 2021年，药物过量在美国夺去了100,000多人的生命。药物诱发杀人(DIH) 法对那些提供“导致或促成他人死亡”的药物的个人规定了特定的刑事责任。过去十年，美国的DIH起诉案件显著增加，尽管没有确凿证据证明其对个人或社区的影响。近年来，Lee等人分析了DIH法律对10个州92个县的阿片类药物过量死亡率的影响，并得出结论认为，DIH法律与阿片类药物过量死亡率的显著降低有关。本篇评论文中，我们提供证据证明，Lee等人的研究存在根本性缺陷。具体而言，Lee等人就定义其治疗条件（即是否存在州级DIH法）而使用的法律数据几乎在每个方面都是不正确的。我们还描述了重大的方法论缺陷，包括错误的抽样策略和建模策略，前者导致县级药物过量致死率样本的偏差，后者无法有效评价“DIH法律对阿片类药物过量死亡率产生负面影响”这一假设。需要更多研究聚焦于DIH法律对个人和社区层面的影响。同时，我们建议决策者加强各州的911《好撒玛利亚人法》，因为DIH法律似乎削弱了这一经过验证的药物过量预防策略的效能。 La sobredosis de drogas cobró más de 100,000 vidas en los Estados Unidos en 2021. Las leyes de homicidio inducido por drogas (DIH, por sus siglas en inglés) crean una responsabilidad penal específica para las personas que proporcionan drogas que causan o contribuyen a la muerte de otra persona. Los enjuiciamientos de DIH en los Estados Unidos han aumentado sustancialmente durante la última década a pesar de la ausencia de evidencia significativa de sus impactos a nivel individual o comunitario. Recientemente, Lee et al. analizó el impacto de las leyes DIH en la mortalidad por sobredosis de opioides a nivel de condado en 92 condados en 10 estados y concluyó que las leyes DIH están asociadas con reducciones significativas en las tasas de muerte por sobredosis de opioides. En este comentario, presentamos evidencia que demuestra que Lee et al. estudio es fundamentalmente defectuoso. Específicamente, los datos legales utilizados por Lee et al. definir su condición de tratamiento (la presencia o ausencia de una ley DIH a nivel estatal) es incorrecto en casi todos los aspectos. También describimos debilidades metodológicas significativas, incluidas estrategias de muestreo defectuosas que dieron como resultado una muestra sesgada de las tasas de sobredosis del condado, así como estrategias de modelado defectuosas que no pueden evaluar de manera efectiva la hipótesis de que las leyes DIH tienen un impacto negativo en la mortalidad por sobredosis de opioides. Se necesita más investigación sobre los impactos a nivel individual y comunitario de las leyes DIH. Mientras tanto, recomendamos a los legisladores que fortalezcan las Leyes del Buen Samaritano 911 estatales, ya que las leyes DIH parecen erosionar la eficacia de esta estrategia comprobada de prevención de sobredosis. Drug-induced homicide laws create specific criminal liability for individuals who provide drugs that cause or contribute to the death of another person and are increasingly used in the United States despite little evidence of their impact on overdose and other harms. This paper critically evaluates a recent paper that analyzed the impact of these laws on county-level opioid overdose mortality across 92 counties in 10 US states, concluding that these laws are associated with reduced opioid overdose deaths. We present evidence demonstrating that the previous paper is fundamentally flawed, detailing serious errors in the underlying legal research as well as significant methodological weaknesses that render the results of the paper unreliable. Reliable research on the impact of these laws is urgently needed. In the meantime, policymakers are urged to implement policies with robust evidence demonstrating their overdose-prevention impacts: medications for opioid use disorder, naloxone access, and syringe services programs. Drug overdose claimed more than 107,000 lives in the United States in 2021 (Ahmad et al., 2022). Between 2019 and 2020, the national rate of overdose deaths involving synthetic opioids, such as fentanyl, increased by 5%, representing more than 80% of all opioid-related fatalities (US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022b). Current evidence suggests that illicitly manufactured fentanyl has become pervasive in the US drug supply (Jones et al., 2018; Martinez et al., 2021; Park et al., 2018). Though the changing nature of the drug supply is producing shifts in consumer preference—including some consumer preference for fentanyl above other opioid products (Ciccarone, 2019)—evidence overwhelmingly indicates that fentanyl has entered the US drug supply as a result of supply-side forces and not in response to clear demand from drug consumers (Carroll et al., 2017; Hempstead & Yildirim, 2014; Mars et al., 2018). The end result is a drug supply that is more varied, less predictable, and, as a direct consequence of that unpredictability, deadlier compared to previous decades. State-level drug-induced homicide (DIH) laws create specific criminal liability for individuals who sell or deliver drugs that subsequently cause or contribute to the death of another person. Although most state DIH laws were first enacted during the height of the “War on Drugs” in the 1980s and 1990s (Keilman, 2018), their use has dramatically increased over the past few years due to both a resurgence in prosecution under existing laws and the enactment of new state laws. According to research from the Health in Justice Action Lab, the number of DIH prosecutions (2021) has grown approximately 10-fold over the last decade (Figure 1). DIH laws are often described as efforts to deter illegal drug distribution or, at a minimum, deter the distribution of potent synthetic opioids such as fentanyl and fentanyl analogs (Perrotti, 2018) by increasing the severity of the penalties that can be levied against people who provide drugs that contribute to another person's death—a cornerstone of criminal deterrence theory (Braga & Weisburd, 2015). Moral and ideological purposes, such as seeking justice for surviving family and friends of the deceased and “honoring” the life of the person who suffered a fatal overdose, have also been claimed by prosecuting attorneys as motivations for pursuing these charges (Doiron, 2018; Office of the DuPage County State's Attorney, 2021; Rothberg & Stith, 2018). While emerging evidence suggests that media coverage of DIH prosecutions may be associated with fluctuations in the local drug supply, potentially increasing the risk of fatal overdose (Carroll et al., 2021), the impact of DIH laws on overdose deaths has not been systematically evaluated. Despite this lack of evidence, DIH laws have been enthusiastically promoted by many law enforcement officials, prosecutors, and legislators across the United States (Office of the Attorney General, 2018; United States Drug Enforcement Administration, 2018). Studies on the impacts of other criminal drug policies offer reason to question whether DIH laws (or their enforcement through arrest, prosecution, and conviction) are capable of having a meaningful impact on opioid overdose, however they are implemented. Current literatures provide evidence that deterrence through threat of criminal punishment largely reshapes how drug suppliers act, altering not whether but the manner in which individuals go about producing or distributing illicit substances—often pressuring behavior changes that have a deleterious effect on community health, such as increased HIV risk (Friedman et al., 2006) and risk of other drug-related harms among people who use drugs (Barratt et al., 2005; Dickinson, 2017). Furthermore, a growing body of evidence from the United States and Canada indicates that strong social ties between drug suppliers and drug consumers may be protective against overdose, suggesting that the prosecution and incarceration of suppliers (which DIH laws ostensibly aim to do) may have the potential to increase opioid-related mortality (Carroll et al., 2017, 2020; McKnight & Des Jarlais, 2018; Rhodes et al., 2019). A recent case study examining the community-level impacts of a high-profile DIH case in North Carolina supports this conjecture (Carroll et al., 2021). In an analysis published in the Journal of Drug Issues in April 2022, Lee et al. (2022a) respond to the current gap in evidence by evaluating the impact of DIH laws on opioid overdose mortality in a sample of 92 US counties in 10 US states and the District of Columbia. From their analysis, Lee et al. (2022a) conclude that the enactment of a DIH law carrying a life sentence is associated with an average annual reduction of 2.24 opioid overdoses per 100,000 population. To illustrate the size of that effect, a hypothetical reduction of 2.24 deaths per 100,000 would represent a decrease of more than 8% in statewide opioid overdose mortality in Arizona and Colorado—two states in which a DIH conviction carries a life sentence—based on 2020 data (Arizona Department of Health Services, 2022; Colorado Department of Public Health & Environment, 2022). This finding is noteworthy, because, to date, few policy interventions have been identified that are capable of such sizeable impact on opioid overdose mortality rates in the United States. In fact, we are aware of only two such interventions that have been identified over the now decade-long course of the US overdose epidemic; first, the establishment of low-barrier, long-term treatment with medications for opioid use disorder for persons incarcerated by the Rhode Island Department of Corrections was associated with a 12.5% reduction in overdose mortality statewide (Green et al., 2018); second, naloxone access laws and Good Samaritan laws—key pillars in the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) strategies for overdose prevention (Carroll et al., 2018)—have been associated with reductions in fatal overdose of 14% and 15%, respectively (McClellan et al., 2018). To the best of our knowledge, no other policy intervention has been shown to be as effective in preventing overdose as these. Thus, the identification of another policy intervention capable of producing similar reductions in opioid overdose death, which Lee et al. (2022a) suggest DIH laws may be, would be truly momentous. Unfortunately, we find the analysis presented by Lee et al. (2022a) to be fundamentally flawed due to incorrect data and a poor methodological approach—concerns that, together and independently, merit the rejection of their conclusions. In the sections below, we briefly describe the study undertaken by Lee et al., after which we outline errors in measurement, sampling, and modeling that render the findings produced through this analysis completely uninformative. Specifically, we offer the following observations: (1) virtually all legal data about state-level DIH laws (including, but not limited to, the dates upon which those laws were enacted or amended) included in the analysis—the primary exposure variable used in the study—are incorrect; (2) the sample of US counties included in the analysis is highly selected, representing a mere 14% of counties in the 10 states of interest among which urban counties with higher populations are problematically over-represented; and (3) the estimation strategy used is incapable of identifying the causal effect of DIH laws and likely to produce a spurious correlation even if a true causal relationship were to exist. Lee et al. (2022a) provide some information regarding the methods used in the paper, although they fall short of minimal methodological reporting standards, especially for papers that include variables created through novel legal research (i.e., research into the history of state-level legislative actions). Approximately one year after the publication of the original article, the authors published a correction, in which certain—but not all—methodological details were clarified (Lee et al., 2022b). In brief, they use the existence or absence of a state-level DIH law as a predictor variable and county-level annual opioid overdose mortality rate as their outcome variable. They use a sample of counties from states with DIH laws carrying a minimum sentence of more than 2 years that they describe in their original article as being “effective as of 2018” (Lee et al., 2022a). In the correction to the original article, they state that they “operationalized the DIH [law] effective date as when those amendments explicitly referenced opioids as controlled substances or included specifications to minimum and maximum penalty” (Lee et al., 2022b). Asserting the use of these selection criteria, they include 10 states (Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, North Carolina, New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Washington) representing a total of 656 unique counties, and the District of Columbia. Neither in the original article nor in the correction do the authors provide any information as to how the legal information used in the analysis, including information about the state laws and the respective provisions within those laws as presented in the paper, was collected or analyzed. Nevertheless, Lee et al. separate those 10 states into six, which they claim require a mandatory minimum sentence of less than life imprisonment and four, which they claim require a life sentence. The authors include individual counties within those 10 states in the sample only if county-level opioid mortality rates were calculated and published in the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Wide-ranging ONline Data for Epidemiologic Research (CDC WONDER) database for every year beginning in 2013 and ending in 2018, the observation period chosen for the study (Lee et al., 2022b). Importantly, counties with low overdose rates are suppressed from WONDER due to privacy concerns through deductive disclosure (we discuss this in detail below), though the authors make no mention of this limitation. The final sample excludes 86% of counties in these states, leaving only 92 counties and the District of Columbia for the analysis (Lee et al., 2022a). six dichotomous variables describing opioid-related state policies (minimum life sentence for DIH convictions; minimum sentence of less than life for DIH convictions; mandatory prescription drug monitoring program laws; the existence of medical marijuana dispensaries; treatment capacity for MOUD; and naloxone access laws), though how the presence or absence of a naloxone access law was defined and how the presence or absence of such laws in each state was assessed is not described; three continuous variables describing county-level socioeconomic conditions (opioid prescription rate; unemployment rate; uninsured rate); and a 1-year lag of the county's opioid-related mortality rate. The state sentencing policies (minimum life sentence and minimum sentence of less than life) of DIH laws are the “treatment variables” for which the authors wish to investigate association or effect. The authors also include subsequently described county-level fixed effects in their analysis to address the potential correlation between DIH laws and time-invariant, omitted county characteristics. Following Arellano and Bover (1995), they also attempt to correct for endogeneity in the socioeconomic variables and opioid-related mortality lag by using opioid morality lags as instrumental variables. However, it is the endogeneity of DIH laws that is problematic for this analysis (also discussed further below). Rather than addressing this issue, the authors assume that all policy indicators, including enacted DIH laws, are “strictly exogenous.” Based on this model, Lee et al. (2022a) conclude that county-level opioid overdose mortality rates significantly declined after DIH laws with a mandatory minimum sentence of life imprisonment became effective in each county's respective state, stating that “DIH [law] implementation may have deterred drug dealers from supplying illicit opioids to populations at risk for opioid dependence and abuse.” More briefly, in their abstract, the authors state that these findings “suggest that DIH [law] implementation has curtailed the rate of opioid mortality” (Lee et al., 2022a). As stated above, the presence or absence of a state-level DIH law (with and without an accompanying minimum life sentence) was chosen as the treatment variable for the authors' model. Lee et al. do not provide any citations to the specific laws referenced or included in the study, nor do they describe what they consider to be a DIH law, how state laws were identified, or what legal analysis was undertaken to ensure that the laws included in the model meet the inclusion criteria. Perhaps because none of the authors are lawyers, the key legal variables that Lee et al. define and use in the paper are incorrect in nearly every particular. In fact, a thorough legal analysis, conducted by trained attorneys (authors Davis, Lieberman, and Dennis), reveals that every single effective date presented by Lee et al. for the 10 states and the District of Columbia—the entire sample included in the analysis, however that date is operationalized—is incorrect. The errors in effective dates presented by Lee et al. take several forms. In many cases, the dates listed in Lee et al's. table 1 (2022a), which includes more states than the 10 included in the analysis, are not the dates the relevant law was first enacted (see Table 1). In some cases, the dates provided by Lee et al. coincide with recent modifications to the already enacted state law in question—often extremely minor modifications. In other cases, our legal analysis was unable to identify any legislative action related to DIH laws that corresponds to the dates Lee et al. provided. In any case, the enactment dates given by Lee et al. for all 10 states included in their analysis (Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, North Carolina, New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Washington) and the date given for the District of Columbia are incorrect. Additionally, despite sentence length being a key “treatment variable” according to Lee et al., many of the minimum and maximum sentences presented in the paper are also incorrect (see Table 2). In the methodology provided by Lee et al., there is no explanation of how the minimums and maximums were determined, which is especially relevant for states that use presumptive sentencing ranges such as Alaska, Kansas, North Carolina, and Washington, where the presumptive minimums and maximums may differ depending on the criminal history of the individual charged with violating the DIH law. The authors list the effective date of Colorado's law as July 1, 2016. In fact, the relevant section of Colorado's law, Colo. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 18-3-102(1)(e), has existed since 1990. 1990 Colo. Legis. Serv. S.B. 90-121 (West). Contrary to the claims made by the authors, no amendment to this law was enacted in 2016. The penalty statute located at Colo. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 18-1.3-401(1)(a)(I) was amended multiple times between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2018, including in 2016; however, no changes were made to the applicable presumptive penalty range. The authors list the effective date of Florida's law as October 1, 2017. In fact, Florida's DIH law has existed since before October 1987. Before the 1987 amendments, the law applied only to covered deaths that result from “the unlawful distribution of opium or any synthetic or natural salt, compound, derivative, or preparation of opium.” The October 1, 1987, amendments added “any substance controlled under S.893.03(1)” and “cocaine as described in S.893.03(2)(A).” 1987 Fla. Sess. Law Serv. 87-243 (West). This law was indeed amended on October 1, 2017 to include fentanyl, carfentanil, sufentanil, and controlled substance analogs. 2017 Fla. Sess. Law Serv. Ch. 2017-107 (C.S.H.B. 477) (West). See 1987 Fla. Sess. Law Serv. 87-243. Contrary to the claims made by the authors, however, this amendment did not include specifications of minimum or maximum sentencing for DIH and, as described above, both natural and synthetic opioids were included in the law before 1987. The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for violation of Florida's DIH law as “40+” and the maximum penalty as life. However, pursuant to Fla. Stat. § 782.04(1)(a), the DIH law is classified as “murder in the first degree and constitutes a capital felony.” Pursuant to Fla. Stat. § 775.082(1)(a), capital felonies are punished by life imprisonment without parole unless the sentence proceedings result in the determination that the person should be punished by death. Therefore, the authors' mandatory minimum and maximum numbers are incorrect. The authors list the effective date of Illinois’ law as January 1, 2018. In fact, Illinois has had a DIH law since January 1, 1989. 1988 Ill. Legis. Serv. P.A. 85-1259. The act was amended effective January 1, 2018, to allow for the prosecution of acts constituting DIH in violation of the law of other jurisdictions. See 2017 Ill. Legis. Serv. P.A. 100-404. Contrary to the claims made by the authors, this amendment did not mention opioids or include specifications of minimum or maximum sentencing. The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for Illinois’ law as 20 years and the maximum as 59 years. In fact, pursuant to 720 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/9-3.3, DIH is a Class X felony unless the circumstances warrant enhancements. Pursuant to 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-4.5-25(a), a Class X felony is punishable by “not less than 6 years and not more than 30 years.” The authors list the effective date of the Kansas law as July 1, 2017. In fact, the Kansas DIH law, Kan. Stat. Ann. § 21-5430, was enacted on July 1, 2013. Contrary to the claims made by the authors, this law has not been amended since it was first enacted. The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for Kansas's law as 19 years and the maximum as 22. Kansas's DIH law classifies the distribution of a controlled substance causing death as a nondrug, severity level I, person felony; therefore, the applicable presumptive sentencing grid is Kan. Stat. Ann. § 21-6804. (See Kan. Stat. Ann. § 21-5430.) Under the grid, the presumptive sentencing range for an individual with no prior record convicted of a severity level I is 147–165 months, which corresponds to approximately 12.25 to 13.75 years, contrary to the authors' claims. While the applicable sentencing grid located at Kan. Stat. Ann. 21-6804 has been modified multiple times, including a modification effective July 1, 2017, none of the modifications were related to the relevant presumptive range. The authors list the effective date of the Louisiana law as August 1, 2015. In fact, under La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 14:30.1(A)(3), Louisiana has criminalized the unlawful distribution of a controlled substance that directly causes the death of another since September 1987. S.B. 191, 1987 La. Sess. Law Serv. 465 (West). Parts of Louisiana's homicide laws were modified in 2015; however, contrary to the claims made by the authors the relevant section of this law (pertaining to DIH) was not. Specifically, the statute was amended in 2015 to clarify terms related to rape. 2015 La. Sess. Law Serv. Act 184 (H.B. 139) (West). The authors list the effective date of North Carolina's law as December 1, 2017. In fact, North Carolina's homicide law (N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14-17(b)(2)) has defined death as “proximately caused by the unlawful distribution of opium or any synthetic or natural salt, compound, derivative, or preparation of opium” as second-degree murder since 1980. See 1979 North Carolina S.B. 1054 (1979). This law was amended on December 1, 2017 to specifically include certain fentanyl derivatives, synthetic cannabinoids, and other Schedule III, IV, and V substances; however, contrary to the claims made by the authors, this amendment did not include specifications of minimum or maximum sentencing for DIH and, as described above, opioids were included in the law as early as 1980. 2017 North Carolina H.B. 464 (West). The authors list the effective date of the Nevada law as July 1, 2013. In fact, Nevada has had a DIH law since July 1983. 1983 Nevada Laws Ch. 218 (A.B. 389). While this law only applied to minors, a more comprehensive DIH law was enacted in 1985. 1985 Nevada Laws Ch. 527 (A.B. 620). The statute containing penalties for murder (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 200.030) was modified effective July 1, 2013, solely to replace “mental retardation” with “an intellectual disability.” 2013 Nevada Laws Ch. 186 (S.B. 338) (West). Contrary to the claims made by the authors, there were no relevant substantive changes on that date. The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for Nevada's DIH law as 24 years and the maximum as life. In fact, pursuant to Nev. Rev. Stat. § 453.333 and Nev. Rev. Stat. § 200.030, Nevada's DIH law is punishable by death, life imprisonment, or 50 years if convicted of first-degree murder or, for second-degree murder, by life imprisonment or 25 years. The authors list the effective date of the New Jersey law as August 8, 2013. In fact, the law we presume they refer to, N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:35-9, has been in effect since July 1987. L.1987, c. 106, § 1 (1987). The definition of “controlled dangerous substance” was modified effective March 12, 2013, to include certain synthetic cannabinoids. (N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:35-2) 2013 NJ Sess. Law Serv. Ch. 35 (Senate 1783) (West). No references to opioids were added or modified on that date. The penalty statute (N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:43-6(a)(1)) was amended effective August 8, 2013 to make changes related to firearm enhancements that do not impact the DIH provisions. 2013 NJ Sess. Law Serv. Ch. 113 (Senate 2804) (West). The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for New Jersey's law as nine years and the maximum as 19 years. Pursuant to N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:35-9, New Jersey's DIH law is a “crime of the first degree,” which, according to N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:43-6(a)(1), is punishable with a sentence between 10 and 20 years, contrary to the authors' claim. The authors list the effective date of the Oklahoma law as November 1, 2017. In fact, Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 21, § 701.7(B) defined first-degree murder to include the taking of the life of another human being through the unlawful distribution or dispensing of a controlled substance or trafficking in illegal drugs since 1989. 1989 Okla. Sess. Law Serv. 259. In 2012, synthetic controlled substances were added to the list of included drugs. SB 987, 2012 Okla. Sess. Law Serv. Ch. 208. Contrary to the claims made by the authors, this law was not amended in 2017. The penalty statute, Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 21, § 701.9(A), was amended effective November 1, 2017, to require “an overwhelming amount of mitigating evidence” to allow “the benefit of receiving imprisonment for life or deferment of the sentence,” but this applies only when the victim is an on-duty law enforcement officer, correctional officer, or correctional employee. 2017 Okla. Sess. Law Serv. Ch. 169 (H.B. 1306) (West). No other changes were made to the sentencing statute on that date. The authors list the effective date of the Washington law as July 24, 2015. In fact, the relevant law, Wash. Rev. Code Ann. § 69.50.415, was first enacted in 1987. 1987 Wash. Legis. Serv. Ch. 458 § 2. Contrary to the claims made by the authors, this law was not amended in 2015. Washington's controlled substance definitions were amended in 2015 due to a change in cannabis laws. 2015 Wash. Legis. Serv. Ch. 70 (S.S.S.B. 5052) (West). No changes related to opioids were made on that date. The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for Washington's law as nine years and the maximum also as nine years. However, Washington's DIH law is classified as a Class B felony. Wash. Rev. Code Ann. § 69.50.415. Pursuant to Wash. Rev. Code Ann. §§ 9A.20.021(1)(b), the maximum penalty for a Class B felony is 10 years or a $25,000 fine, or both. Further, pursuant to Wash. Rev. Code Ann. § 9.94A.518, Washington's DIH law is classified as a “seriousness level” III drug offense. Washington's sentencing grid, located at Wash. Rev. Code Ann. § 9.94A.517, provides that a seriousness level III conviction for a person with no prior record carries the standard sentencing range of 51–68 months equaling approximately 4.25–5.67 years, making the minimum sentence 4.25 years, contrary to the authors' claims. The authors list the effective date of the District of Columbia's DIH law as June 11, 2013. Rather, the District has had a DIH law since at least September 1992. See 1992 District of Columbia Laws 9-153 (Act 9–213). The penalty statute (D.C. Code § 22-2104) was amended effective June 11, 2013, to add subsection (e) related to limiting fines. Contrary to the claims made by the authors, no changes to sentencing amounts were made on that date. 2012 District of Columbia Laws 19-317 (Act 19-641) (West). The authors list the mandatory minimum penalty for the District of Columbia as 29 years. Pursuant to D.C. Code § 22-2101,}, journal={WORLD MEDICAL & HEALTH POLICY}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. J. and Bevis, Leah and El-Sabawi, Taleed and Figgatt, Mary and Dasgupta, Nabarun and Beletsky, Leo and Leiberman, Amy J. J. and Dennis, Ashleigh and Davis, Corey S. S.}, year={2023}, month={May} }
 @article{xuan_yan_formica_green_beletsky_rosenbloom_bagley_kimmel_carroll_lambert_et al._2023, title={Association of Implementation of Postoverdose Outreach Programs With Subsequent Opioid Overdose Deaths Among Massachusetts Municipalities}, volume={3}, ISSN={["2168-6238"]}, DOI={10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.0109}, abstractNote={Nonfatal opioid overdose is the leading risk factor for subsequent fatal overdose and represents a critical opportunity to reduce future overdose and mortality. Postoverdose outreach programs emerged in Massachusetts beginning in 2013 with the main purpose of linking opioid overdose survivors to addiction treatment and harm reduction services.To evaluate whether the implementation of postoverdose outreach programs among Massachusetts municipalities was associated with lower opioid fatality rates compared with municipalities without postoverdose outreach programs.This retrospective interrupted time-series analysis was performed over 26 quarters (from January 1, 2013, through June 30, 2019) across 93 municipalities in Massachusetts. These 93 municipalities were selected based on a threshold of 30 or more opioid-related emergency medical services (EMS) responses in 2015. Data were analyzed from November 2021 to August 2022.The main exposure was municipality postoverdose outreach programs. Municipalities had various program inceptions during the study period.The primary outcome was quarterly municipal opioid fatality rate per 100 000 population. The secondary outcome was quarterly municipal opioid-related EMS response (ambulance trips) rates per 100 000 population.The mean (SD) population size across 93 municipalities was 47 622 (70 307), the mean (SD) proportion of female individuals was 51.5% (1.5%) and male individuals was 48.5% (1.5%), and the mean (SD) age proportions were 29.7% (4.0%) younger than 25 years, 26.0% (4.8%) aged 25 to 44 years, 14.8% (2.1%) aged 45 to 54 years, 13.4% (2.1%) aged 55 to 64 years, and 16.1% (4.4%) aged 65 years or older. Postoverdose programs were implemented in 58 municipalities (62%). Following implementation, there were no significant level changes in opioid fatality rate (adjusted rate ratio [aRR], 1.07; 95% CI, 0.96-1.19; P = .20). However, there was a significant slope decrease in opioid fatality rate (annualized aRR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.90-0.98; P = .003) compared with the municipalities without the outreach programs. Similarly, there was a significant slope decrease in opioid-related EMS response rates (annualized aRR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.89-0.98; P = .007). Several sensitivity analyses yielded similar findings.In this study, among Massachusetts municipalities with high numbers of opioid-related EMS responses, implementation of postoverdose outreach programs was significantly associated with lower opioid fatality rates over time compared with municipalities that did not implement such programs. Program components, including cross-sectoral partnerships, operational best practices, involvement of law enforcement, and related program costs, warrant further evaluation to enhance effectiveness.}, journal={JAMA PSYCHIATRY}, author={Xuan, Ziming and Yan, Shapei and Formica, Scott W. and Green, Traci C. and Beletsky, Leo and Rosenbloom, David and Bagley, Sarah M. and Kimmel, Simeon D. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Lambert, Audrey M. and et al.}, year={2023}, month={Mar} }
 @article{kimmel_xuan_yan_lambert_formica_green_carroll_bagley_rosenbloom_beletsky_et al._2023, title={Characteristics of post-overdose outreach programs and municipal-level opioid overdose in Massachusetts}, volume={120}, ISSN={["1873-4758"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104164}, abstractNote={Post-overdose outreach programs have proliferated in response to opioid overdose. Implementing these programs is associated with reductions in overdose rates, but the role of specific program characteristics in overdose trends has not been evaluated. Among 58 Massachusetts municipalities with post-overdose outreach programs, we examined associations between five domains of post-overdose outreach program characteristics (outreach contact rate, naloxone distribution, coercive practices, harm reduction activities, and social service provision or referral) and rates of fatal opioid overdoses and opioid-related emergency medical system responses (i.e., ambulance activations) per calendar quarter from 2013 to 2019 using segmented regression analyses with adjustment for municipal covariates and fixed effects. For both outcomes, each domain was modeled: a) individually, b) with other characteristics, and c) with other characteristics and municipal-level fixed effects. There were no significant associations (p < 0.05) between outreach contact rate, naloxone distribution, coercive practices, or harm reduction activities with municipal fatal overdose trends. Municipalities with programs providing or referring to more social services experienced 21% fewer fatal overdoses compared to programs providing or referring to more social services (Rate Ratio (RR) 0.79, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.66–0.93, p = 0.01). Compared to municipalities in quarters when programs had no outreach contacts, municipalities with some, but less than the median outreach contacts, experienced 14% lower opioid-related emergency responses (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.78–0.96, p = 0.01). Associations between naloxone distribution, coercive practices, harm reduction practices, or social services and opioid-related emergency responses were not consistently significant across modeling approaches. Municipalities with post-overdose outreach programs providing or referring to more social services had lower fatal opioid overdose rates. Municipalities in quarters when programs outreached to overdose survivors had fewer opioid-related emergency responses, but only among programs with below the median number of outreach contacts. Social service linkage should be core to post-overdose programs. Evaluations should assess program characteristics to optimize program design.}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY}, author={Kimmel, Simeon D. and Xuan, Ziming and Yan, Shapei and Lambert, Audrey M. and Formica, Scott W. and Green, Traci C. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Bagley, Sarah M. and Rosenbloom, David and Beletsky, Leo and et al.}, year={2023}, month={Oct} }
 @article{ray_korzeniewski_mohler_carroll_pozo_victor_huynh_hedden_2023, title={Spatiotemporal Analysis Exploring the Effect of Law Enforcement Drug Market Disruptions on Overdose, Indianapolis, Indiana, 2020-2021}, volume={113}, ISSN={["1541-0048"]}, DOI={10.2105/AJPH.2023.307291}, abstractNote={Objectives. To test the hypothesis that law enforcement efforts to disrupt local drug markets by seizing opioids or stimulants are associated with increased spatiotemporal clustering of overdose events in the surrounding geographic area. Methods. We performed a retrospective (January 1, 2020 to December 31, 2021), population-based cohort study using administrative data from Marion County, Indiana. We compared frequency and characteristics of drug (i.e., opioids and stimulants) seizures with changes in fatal overdose, emergency medical services nonfatal overdose calls for service, and naloxone administration in the geographic area and time following the seizures. Results. Within 7, 14, and 21 days, opioid-related law enforcement drug seizures were significantly associated with increased spatiotemporal clustering of overdoses within radii of 100, 250, and 500 meters. For example, the observed number of fatal overdoses was two-fold higher than expected under the null distribution within 7 days and 500 meters following opioid-related seizures. To a lesser extent, stimulant-related drug seizures were associated with increased spatiotemporal clustering overdose. Conclusions. Supply-side enforcement interventions and drug policies should be further explored to determine whether they exacerbate an ongoing overdose epidemic and negatively affect the nation’s life expectancy. (Am J Public Health. 2023;113(7):750–758. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307291 )}, number={7}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH}, author={Ray, Bradley and Korzeniewski, Steven J. and Mohler, George and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Pozo, Brandon and Victor, Grant and Huynh, Philip and Hedden, BethanyJ.}, year={2023}, month={Jul}, pages={750–758} }
 @article{carroll_rossi_vetrova_blokhina_sereda_lioznov_luoma_kiriazova_lunze_2023, title={The impacts of COVID-19 on structural inequities faced by people living with HIV who inject drugs: A qualitative study in St. Petersburg, Russia}, volume={117}, ISSN={["1873-4758"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104060}, abstractNote={People who inject drugs (PWID) living with HIV may be disproportionately impacted by pandemic restrictions. This study qualitatively explored the impacts of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic on PWID with HIV in St. Petersburg, Russia.In March and April 2021, we conducted remote, semi-structured interviews with PWID with HIV, health care providers, and harm reductionists.We interviewed 25 PWID with HIV (aged 28-56 years, 46% female) and 11 providers. The pandemic exacerbated economic and psychological challenges experienced by PWID with HIV. Simultaneously, barriers to HIV care access, ART prescription refill and dispensing and police violence, which hindered the health and safety of PWID with HIV, were themselves hindered from normal operations by the pandemic, significantly reducing these burdens.Pandemic responses should account for the unique vulnerabilities of PWID with HIV to avoid worsening the structural violence they already experience. Wherever the pandemic decreased structural barriers, such as institutional, administrative, and bureaucratic challenges and state violence enacted by police and other elements of the criminal justice system, such changes should be protected.}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rossi, Sarah L. and Vetrova, Marina V. and Blokhina, Elena and Sereda, Yuliia and Lioznov, Dmitry and Luoma, Jason and Kiriazova, Tetiana and Lunze, Karsten}, year={2023}, month={Jul} }
 @article{carroll_cummins_formica_green_bagley_beletsky_rosenbloom_xuan_walley_2023, title={The police paradox: A qualitative study of post-overdose outreach program implementation through public health-public safety partnerships in Massachusetts}, volume={120}, ISSN={["1873-4758"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104160}, abstractNote={Post-overdose outreach has emerged in the United States as an increasingly common response to non-fatal overdose. This qualitative study investigates the implementation of such programs through public health-public safety partnerships in Massachusetts.We conducted semi-structured interviews with post-overdose outreach team members, overdose survivors, and family members who received outreach. Interview transcripts were inductively analyzed to identify emergent themes and subsequently organized within the framework of Ecological Systems Theory.Forty-nine interviews were conducted, including 15 police officers (80% male, 100% non-Hispanic White); 23 public health partners (48% male, 87% non-Hispanic White); 8 overdose survivors who received outreach services and 3 parents of survivors who received services (collectively 27% male, 64% non-Hispanic White). Implementation factors identified across all levels (macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem) of Ecological Systems Theory included key program facilitators, such as access to police data and funding (macro), interagency collaboration (exo), shared recognition of community needs (exo), supportive relationships among team members (meso), and program champions (micro). Common barriers included inherent contradictions between policing and public health mandates (macro), poor local treatment and service capacity (exo), divergent staff views of program goals (exo), overdose survivors' prior negative experiences with law enforcement (meso), difficulty locating overdose survivors (meso), and police officers' lack of qualifications or training in providing psycho-social services (micro).Most post-overdose outreach programs in this study were dependent on funding and data-sharing partnerships, which police agencies largely controlled. Yet, police participation, especially during outreach visits presented numerous challenges for engaging overdose survivors and establishing non-coercive linkages with evidence-based services, which may undermine the public health goals of these programs. These findings should inform state and federal efforts to expand the role of law enforcement in behavioral health initiatives.}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Cummins, Emily R. and Formica, Scott W. and Green, Traci C. and Bagley, Sarah M. and Beletsky, Leo and Rosenbloom, David and Xuan, Ziming and Walley, Alexander Y.}, year={2023}, month={Oct} }
 @article{morrissey_hughes_ostrach_wilson_getty_combs_bennett_carroll_2022, title={"They don't go by the law around here": law enforcement interactions after the legalization of syringe services programs in North Carolina}, volume={19}, ISSN={["1477-7517"]}, DOI={10.1186/s12954-022-00690-w}, abstractNote={Abstract Background In 2016, the US state of North Carolina (NC) legalized syringe services programs (SSPs), providing limited immunity from misdemeanor syringe possession when law enforcement is presented documentation that syringes were obtained from an SSP. This study explores the law enforcement interactions experienced by SSP participants since the enactment of this law. Methods This study used a convergent, mixed-methods design consisting of structured surveys and semi-structured interviews with SSP participants in seven NC counties. Survey and interview data were collected simultaneously between January and November 2019. This survey was designed to capture demographics, characteristics of drug use, SSP services used, and past-year negative experiences with law enforcement (officer did not recognize SSP card, did not believe SSP card belonged to participant, confiscated SSP card, confiscated syringes, or arrested participant for possessing syringes). Semi-structured interviews explored lived experiences with and perspectives on the same topics covered in the survey. Results A total of 414 SSP participants completed the survey (45% male, 54% female, 1% transgender or non-binary; 65% White, 22% Black, 5% American Indian/Alaskan Native, 8% some other racial identity). 212 participants (51.2%) reported at least one past-year negative experience with law enforcement. Chi-square testing suggests that Black respondents were more likely to report having experienced law enforcement doubt their SSP card belonged to them. Interview data indicate that law enforcement practices vary greatly across counties, and that negative and/or coercive interactions reduce expectations among SSP participants that they will be afforded the protections granted by NC law. Conclusion Despite laws which protect SSP participants from charges, negative law enforcement responses to syringe possession are still widely reported. Evidence-based policy interventions to reduce fatal overdose are undermined by these experiences. Our findings suggest NC residents, and officers who enforce these laws, may benefit from clarification as to what is required of the documents which identify participants of registered SSPs where they may legally obtain syringes. Likewise, more thorough trainings on NC’s syringe law for law enforcement officers may be merited. Further research is needed to assess geographic differences in SSP participants’ law enforcement interactions across race and gender.}, number={1}, journal={HARM REDUCTION JOURNAL}, author={Morrissey, Brandon and Hughes, Tamera and Ostrach, Bayla and Wilson, Loftin and Getty, Reid and Combs, Tonya L. and Bennett, Jesse and Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2022}, month={Sep} }
 @article{carroll_2022, title={CURRENTS: THE RE-STARTING OF HISTORY: LIFE IN CHANGING SPHERES OF RUSSIAN INFLUENCE Losing the plot On method and meaning in traumatizing ethnographic work}, volume={12}, ISSN={["2049-1115"]}, DOI={10.1086/723680}, number={3}, journal={HAU-JOURNAL OF ETHNOGRAPHIC THEORY}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2022}, month={Dec}, pages={642–650} }
 @article{carroll_cushman_lira_colasanti_rio_lasser_parker_roy_samet_liebschutz_2022, title={Evidence-Based Interventions to Improve Opioid Prescribing in Primary Care: a Qualitative Assessment of Implementation in Two Studies}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1525-1497"]}, DOI={10.1007/s11606-022-07909-3}, journal={JOURNAL OF GENERAL INTERNAL MEDICINE}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Cushman, Phoebe A. and Lira, Marlene C. and Colasanti, Jonathan A. and Rio, Carlos and Lasser, Karen E. and Parker, Victoria and Roy, Payel J. and Samet, Jeffrey H. and Liebschutz, Jane M.}, year={2022}, month={Nov} }
 @article{ray_hedden_carroll_pozo_wagner_kral_o'donnell_victor_huynh_2022, title={Prevalence and correlates of incarceration following emergency medical services response to overdose}, volume={238}, ISSN={["1879-0046"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109571}, abstractNote={To describe the prevalence of incarceration among survivors of non-fatal overdose addressed through an emergency medical services (EMS) response, and compare incarceration by whether the emergency was for opioid-involved or stimulant-involved overdose.Administrative records on 192,113 EMS incidents and 70,409 jail booking events occurring between January 1, 2019 and December 31, 2020 in Indianapolis, Indiana were record-linked at the event level. Incarceration taking place within 6-hours of an EMS incident was associated with that incident. Logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (AOR) of incarceration after an overdose.Among all EMS incidents, 2.6% were followed by incarceration. For overdose EMS incidents, the prevalence of incarceration was 10.0%. Overdose incidents had higher odds than non-overdose incidents of leading to a charge of felony, booked on a warrant, and transferred to another law enforcement agency upon release. Prevalence of incarceration following a stimulant-involved overdose was 21.3%, compared to 9.3% for opioid-involved overdose survivors. Compared to persons from other EMS incidents, overdose survivors had greater odds of incarceration (AOR=3.48, 95% confidence interval (CI)= 3.22, 3.75, p < .001), with opioid-involved overdoses (AOR=3.03, 95% CI=2.76, 3.33, p < .001) and stimulant-involved overdoses (AOR=6.70, 95% CI=5.26, 8.55, p < .001) leading to higher odds of incarceration.Incarceration in county jail followed one in ten overdose-involved EMS responses. As illicit drug consumption increasingly involves stimulants, the frequency of incarceration following these events is likely to increase. Policy changes and interventions are needed to reduce incarceration after overdose emergencies.}, journal={DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE}, author={Ray, Bradley and Hedden, Bethany J. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Pozo, Brandon and Wagner, Karla and Kral, Alex H. and O'Donnell, Daniel and Victor, Grant and Huynh, Phil}, year={2022}, month={Sep} }
 @article{aronowitz_carroll_hansen_jauffret-roustide_parker_suhail-sindhu_albizu-garcia_alegria_arrendondo_baldacchino_et al._2022, title={Substance use policy and practice in the COVID-19 pandemic: Learning from early pandemic responses through internationally comparative field data}, volume={12}, ISSN={["1744-1706"]}, DOI={10.1080/17441692.2022.2129720}, abstractNote={The COVID-19 pandemic has created an unprecedented natural experiment in drug policy, treatment delivery, and harm reduction strategies by exposing wide variation in public health infrastructures and social safety nets around the world. Using qualitative data including ethnographic methods, questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews with people who use drugs (PWUD) and Delphi-method with experts from field sites spanning 13 different countries, this paper compares national responses to substance use during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Field data was collected by the Substance Use x COVID-19 (SU x COVID) Data Collaborative, an international network of social scientists, public health scientists, and community health practitioners convened to identify and contextualise health service delivery models and social protections that influence the health and wellbeing of PWUD during COVID-19. Findings suggest that countries with stronger social welfare systems pre-COVID introduced durable interventions targeting structural drivers of health. Countries with fragmented social service infrastructures implemented temporary initiatives for PWUD led by non-governmental organisations. The paper summarises the most successful early pandemic responses seen across countries and ends by calling for greater systemic investments in social protections for PWUD, diversion away from criminal-legal systems toward health interventions, and integrated harm reduction, treatment and recovery supports for PWUD.}, journal={GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH}, author={Aronowitz, Shoshana V. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Hansen, Helena and Jauffret-Roustide, Marie and Parker, Caroline Mary and Suhail-Sindhu, Selena and Albizu-Garcia, Carmen and Alegria, Margarita and Arrendondo, Jaimie and Baldacchino, Alexander and et al.}, year={2022}, month={Dec} }
 @article{carroll_rossi_vetrova_kiriazova_lunze_2022, title={Supporting the Health of HIV-Positive People Who Inject Drugs During COVID-19 and Beyond: Lessons for the United States from St. Petersburg, Russia}, volume={112}, ISSN={["1541-0048"]}, DOI={10.2105/AJPH.2022.306727}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rossi, Sarah L. and Vetrova, Marina V. and Kiriazova, Tetiana and Lunze, Karsten}, year={2022}, month={Apr}, pages={S123–S127} }
 @article{carroll_mackin_schmidt_mckenzie_green_2022, title={The Bronze Age of drug checking: barriers and facilitators to implementing advanced drug checking amidst police violence and COVID-19}, volume={19}, ISSN={["1477-7517"]}, DOI={10.1186/s12954-022-00590-z}, abstractNote={Unpredictable fluctuations in the illicit drug market increase overdose risk. Drug checking, or the use of technology to provide insight into the contents of illicit drug products, is an overdose prevention strategy with an emerging evidence base. The use of portable spectrometry devices to provide point-of-service analysis of the contents of illicit drugs been adopted by harm reduction organizations internationally but is only emerging in the United States. This study aimed to identify barriers and facilitators of implementing drug checking services with spectrometry devices in an urban harm reduction organization and syringe service program serving economically marginalized people who use drugs in Boston, Massachusetts (USA).In-vivo observations and semi-structured interviews with harm reduction staff and participants were conducted between March 2019 and December 2020. We used the consolidated framework for implementation research to identify implementation barriers and facilitators.This implementation effort was facilitated by the organization's shared culture of harm reduction-which fostered shared implementation goals and beliefs about the intervention among staff persons-its horizontal organizational structure, strong identification with the organization among staff, and strong relationships with external funders. Barriers to implementation included the technological complexity of the advanced spectroscopy devices utilized for drug checking. Program staff indicated that commercially available spectroscopy devices are powerful but not always well-suited for drug checking efforts, describing their technological capacities as "the Bronze Age of Drug Checking." Other significant barriers include the legal ambiguity of drug checking services, disruptive and oppositional police activity, and the responses and programmatic changes demanded by the COVID-19 pandemic.For harm reduction organizations to be successful in efforts to implement and scale drug checking services, these critical barriers-especially regressive policing policies and prohibitive costs-need to be addressed. Future research on the impact of policy changes to reduce the criminalization of substance use or to provide explicit legal frameworks for the provision of this and other harm reduction services may be merited.}, number={1}, journal={HARM REDUCTION JOURNAL}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Mackin, Sarah and Schmidt, Clare and McKenzie, Michelle and Green, Traci C.}, year={2022}, month={Feb} }
 @article{tori_cummins_beletsky_schoenberger_lambert_yan_carroll_formica_green_apsler_et al._2022, title={Warrant checking practices by post-overdose outreach programs in Massachusetts: A mixed-methods study}, volume={100}, ISSN={["1873-4758"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103483}, abstractNote={Post-overdose outreach programs engage survivors in harm reduction and treatment to prevent future overdoses. In Massachusetts, these emerging programs commonly deploy teams comprised of police and public health professionals based on 911 call information. Some teams use name/address data to conduct arrest warrant checks prior to outreach visits. We used mixed methods to understand approaches to outreach related to warrant checking, from the perspectives of police and public health outreach agencies and staff.We analyzed a 2019 statewide survey of post-overdose outreach programs in Massachusetts to classify approaches to warrant checking and identify program and community factors associated with particular approaches. Ethnographic analysis of qualitative interviews conducted with outreach staff helped further contextualize outreach program practices related to warrants.A majority (57% - 79/138) of post-overdose outreach programs in Massachusetts conducted warrant checks prior to outreach. Among programs that checked warrants, we formulated a taxonomy of approaches to handling warrants: 1) performing outreach without addressing warrants (19.6% - 27/138), 2) delaying outreach until warrants are cleared (15.9% - 22/138), 3) arresting the survivor (11/138 - 8.0%), 4) taking a situational approach (10/138 - 7.2%), 5) not performing outreach (9/138 - 6.5%). Program characteristics and staff training did not vary across approaches. From police and public health outreach staff interviews (n = 38), we elicited four major themes: a) diverse motivations precede warrant checking, b) police officers feel tension between dual roles, c) warrants alter approaches to outreach, and d) teams leverage warrants in relationships. Findings from both analyses converged to demonstrate unintended consequences of warrant checking.Checking warrants prior to post-overdose outreach visits can result in arrest, delayed outreach, and barriers to obtaining services for overdose survivors, which can undermine the goal of these programs to engage overdose survivors. With the public health imperative of engaging overdose survivors, programs should consider limiting warrant checking and police participation in field activities.}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY}, author={Tori, Marco E. and Cummins, Emily and Beletsky, Leo and Schoenberger, Samantha F. and Lambert, Audrey M. and Yan, Shapei and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Formica, Scott W. and Green, Traci C. and Apsler, Robert and et al.}, year={2022}, month={Feb} }
 @misc{carroll_2021, title={A Collaborative Approach to Planning and Implementing a Rural Syringe Services Program in Vance County, North Carolina}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2021}, month={May} }
 @article{el-sabawi_carroll_2021, title={A Model for Defunding: An Evidence-based Statute for Behavioral Health Crisis Response}, volume={94}, number={1}, journal={Temple Law Review}, author={El-Sabawi, Taleed and Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2021} }
 @misc{carroll_el-sabawi_fitcher_pope_rafla-yuan_compton_watson_2021, title={A Workforce for Non-Police Behavioral Health Crisis Response Doesn’t Exist – We Need to Create It}, url={https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20210903.856934/full/}, DOI={10.1377/hblog20210903.856934}, journal={Health Affairs blog}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and El-Sabawi, Taleed and Fitcher, Dan and Pope, Leah and Rafla-Yuan, Eric and Compton, Michael T. and Watson, Amy}, year={2021} }
 @article{carroll_2021, title={Auras of Detection: Power and Knowledge in Drug Prohibition}, volume={8}, ISSN={0091-4509 2163-1808}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00914509211035487}, DOI={10.1177/00914509211035487}, abstractNote={Drug checking is an evidence-based strategy for overdose prevention that continues to operate (where it operates) in a legal “gray zone” due to the legal classification of some drug checking tools as drug paraphernalia—the purview of law enforcement, not public health. This article takes the emergence of fentanyl in the U.S. drug supply as a starting point for examining two closely related questions about drug checking and drug market expertise. First, how is the epistemic authority of law enforcement over the material realities of the drug market produced? Second, in the context of that authority, what are the socio-political implications of technologically advanced drug checking instruments in the hands of people who use drugs? The expertise that people who use drugs maintain about the nature of illicit drug market and how to navigate the illicit drug supply has long been discounted as untrustworthy, irrational, or otherwise invalid. Yet, increased access to drug checking tools has the potential to afford the knowledge produced by people who use drugs a technological validity it has never before enjoyed. In this article, I engage with theories of knowledge production and ontological standpoint from the field of science, technology, and society studies to examine how law enforcement produces and maintains epistemic authority over the illicit drug market and to explore how drug checking technologies enable new forms of knowledge production. I argue that drug checking be viewed as a form of social resistance against law enforcement’s epistemological authority and as a refuge against the harms produced by drug criminalization.}, journal={Contemporary Drug Problems}, publisher={SAGE Publications}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2021}, month={Aug}, pages={009145092110354} }
 @article{formica_waye_benintendi_yan_bagley_beletsky_carroll_xuan_rosenbloom_apsler_et al._2021, title={Characteristics of post-overdose public health-public safety outreach in Massachusetts}, volume={219}, ISSN={0376-8716}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108499}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108499}, abstractNote={As a response to mounting overdose fatalities, cross-agency outreach efforts have emerged to reduce future risk among overdose survivors. We aimed to characterize such programs in Massachusetts, with focus on team composition, approach, services provided, and funding.We conducted a two-phase cross-sectional survey of public health and safety providers in Massachusetts. Providers in all 351 municipalities received a screening survey. Those with programs received a second, detailed survey. We analyzed responses using descriptive statistics.As of July 2019, 44 % (156/351) of Massachusetts municipalities reported post-overdose outreach programs, with 75 % (104/138) formed between 2016-2019. Teams conducted home-based outreach 1-3 days following overdose events. Police departments typically supplied location information on overdose events (99 %, 136/138) and commonly participated in outreach visits (86 %, 118/138) alongside public health personnel, usually from community-based organizations. Teams provided or made referrals to services including inpatient addiction treatment, recovery support, outpatient medication, overdose prevention education, and naloxone. Some programs deployed law enforcement tools, including pre-visit warrant queries (57 %, 79/138), which occasionally led to arrest (11 %, 9/79). Many programs (81 %, 112/138) assisted families with involuntary commitment to treatment - although this was usually considered an option of last resort. Most programs were grant-funded (76 %, 104/136) and engaged in cross-municipal collaboration (94 %, 130/138).Post-overdose outreach programs have expanded, typically as collaborations between police and public health. Further research is needed to better understand the implications of involving police and to determine best practices for increasing engagement in treatment and harm reduction services and reduce subsequent overdose.}, journal={Drug and Alcohol Dependence}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Formica, Scott W. and Waye, Katherine M. and Benintendi, Allyn O. and Yan, Shapei and Bagley, Sarah M. and Beletsky, Leo and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Xuan, Ziming and Rosenbloom, David and Apsler, Robert and et al.}, year={2021}, month={Feb}, pages={108499} }
 @misc{carroll_2021, title={Decentering the State: The Limits of Law Enforcement in Public Health Responses to Substance Use}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2021}, month={May} }
 @article{carroll_ostrach_wilson_dunlap_getty_bennett_2021, title={Drug induced homicide laws may worsen opioid related harms: An example from rural North Carolina}, volume={97}, ISSN={0955-3959}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103406}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103406}, abstractNote={Drug-induced homicide (DIH) laws typically allow for the prosecution of drug distribution resulting in an overdose fatality as equivalent to homicide or manslaughter. Despite vigorous debate about the appropriateness of DIH laws as a response to overdose, the public health impacts of this increasingly common prosecutorial strategy remain unknown. In this policy analysis, we take up the question of how DIH prosecutions impact local persons and communities through the lens of a high-profile DIH conviction that took place in Haywood County, a rural county located in the Appalachian region of western North Carolina. Describing insights gained from two unrelated but overlapping studies carried out in Haywood County, we identify several plausible mechanisms through which DIH laws may negatively impact public health. Among these are disruptions to the local drug market and deterrence from calling 911 when witnessing an overdose. With the number of DIH prosecutions growing rapidly, more research on the public health impacts of DIH laws is urgently needed.}, journal={International Journal of Drug Policy}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Ostrach, Bayla and Wilson, Loftin and Dunlap, Jesse Lee and Getty, Reid and Bennett, Jesse}, year={2021}, month={Nov}, pages={103406} }
 @book{carroll_asher_krishnasamy_dowell_2021, title={Every Door is the Right Door: Linkage to Care for Individuals Living with Opioid Use Disorder}, institution={National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Asher, Alice and Krishnasamy, Vikram and Dowell, Deborah}, year={2021} }
 @misc{carroll_2021, title={Exclusionary Utopias: The Narkoman as an Ideal Other in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2021}, month={Feb} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2021, title={Post Overdose Outreach in Massachusetts: Lessons from Law Enforcement and Public Health Partnerships}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2021}, month={Mar} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2021, title={Preventing Overdose in Rural Areas: A Successful Public Health/Harm Reduction Collaboration in Granville and Vance Counties, North Carolina}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2021}, month={Apr} }
 @misc{carroll_el-sabawi_2021, place={Cambridge, MA}, title={The Case for Non-Police Response to Behavioral Health Crises}, url={https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2021/04/01/non-police-response-behavioral-health-crises/#more-29934}, journal={Bill of Health blog}, publisher={Petrie Flom Center at Harvard School of Law.}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and El-Sabawi, Taleed}, year={2021}, month={Apr} }
 @article{carroll_el-sabawi_ostrach_2021, title={The Harms of Punishing Substance Use During Pregnancy}, volume={98}, ISSN={["1873-4758"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103433}, abstractNote={As rates of substance use have increased in the United States, rates of substance-involved pregnancies have also been on the rise, inspiring new civil policies designed to punish pregnant and parenting individuals who engage in substance use or are living with an untreated substance use disorder. Proponents of punitive civil policies argue that such policies will deter substance use behaviors and/or that substance use during pregnancy deserves punishment for harming the fetus. Current scientific evidence invalidates both claims, offering compelling evidence that punitive civil policies often worsen the harms of substance use for both parent and child. In this commentary, we review this evidence and explain how punitive policies that threaten child removal and the termination of parental rights exacerbate the very problems they are ostensibly designed to reduce. Rather than coercive and punitive responses, families affected by substance use need greater access to affordable, evidence-based treatment as well as services that address the structural and relational concerns underlying substance use. Above all, responses to perinatal substance use in both policy and practice should prioritize keeping families together.}, journal={International Journal of Drug Policy}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and El-Sabawi, Taleed and Ostrach, Bayla}, year={2021}, month={Dec}, pages={103433} }
 @inproceedings{formica_waye_benintendi_yan_bagley_keosaian_beletsky_carroll_xuan_apsler_et al._2020, title={Characteristics of Emerging Post-Overdose Outreach Programs in Massachusetts}, author={Formica, Scott W. and Waye, Katherine M. and Benintendi, Allyn and Yan, Shapei and Bagley, Sarah and Keosaian, Julia and Beletsky, Leo and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Xuan, Ziming and Apsler, Robert and et al.}, year={2020}, month={Oct} }
 @article{bartoszyńska_carroll_johnston-bloom_2020, title={Close Reading at a Distance: Téa Obreht’s Inland}, url={http://asapjournal.com/close-reading-at-a-distance-tea-obrehts-inland-kasia-bartoszynska-jennifer-j-carroll-and-ruchama-johnston-bloom/}, journal={ASAP Journal}, author={Bartoszyńska, Kasia and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Johnston-Bloom, Ruchama}, year={2020}, month={Oct} }
 @misc{carroll_2020, title={Dealers, Distribution, and Other Half Truths}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2020}, month={Mar} }
 @inbook{carroll_2020, place={Stuttgart}, series={Soviet and post-Soviet politics and society}, title={Image and Imitation: The Visual Rhetoric of Pro-Russian Propaganda}, ISBN={9783838213880 9783838213880}, booktitle={Ideology After Union: Political Doctrines, Discourses, and Debates in Post-Soviet Societies}, publisher={Ibidem Verlag}, author={Carroll, J.}, editor={Etkind, Alexander and Minakov, MikhailEditors}, year={2020}, collection={Soviet and post-Soviet politics and society} }
 @article{carroll_mital_wolff_noonan_martinez_podolsky_killorin_green_2020, title={Knowledge, preparedness, and compassion fatigue among law enforcement officers who respond to opioid overdose}, volume={217}, ISSN={0376-8716}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108257}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108257}, abstractNote={Rates of fatal overdose (OD) from synthetic opioids rose nearly 60 % from 2016 to 2018. 911 Good Samaritan Laws (GSLs) are an evidenced-based strategy for preventing OD fatality. This study describes patrol officers' knowledge of their state's GSL, experience with OD response, and their perspectives on strategies to prevent and respond to opioid OD.An electronic survey assessed officers' knowledge of state GSLs and experiences responding to OD. Descriptive statistics and hierarchical linear modeling were generated to examine differences in knowledge, preparedness, and endorsement of OD response efforts by experience with OD response.2,829 officers responded to the survey. Among those who had responded to an OD call in the past six months (n = 1,946), 37 % reported administering naloxone on scene and 36 % reported making an arrest. Most (91 %) correctly reported whether their state had a GSL in effect. Only 26 % correctly reported whether that law provides limited immunity from arrest. Fifteen percent of officers who had responded to an OD work in departments that do not carry naloxone. Compared with officers who had not responded to any OD calls, those who reported responding OD calls at least monthly and at least weekly, were significantly less likely to endorse OD response efforts.Officers who respond to OD calls are generally receiving training and naloxone supplies to respond, but knowledge gaps and additional training needs persist. Additional training and strategies to relieve compassion fatigue among those who have more experience with OD response efforts may be indicated.}, journal={Drug and Alcohol Dependence}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Mital, Sasha and Wolff, Jessica and Noonan, Rita K. and Martinez, Pedro and Podolsky, Melissa C. and Killorin, John C. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2020}, month={Dec}, pages={108257} }
 @article{carroll_2020, title={Letter to the Editor: DPS and Suboxone}, journal={News and Observer}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2020}, month={Jul} }
 @misc{carroll_2020, title={Narkomania: Author Roundtable and Q&A}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2020}, month={Oct} }
 @article{el-sabawi, jd, phd_beletsky, jd, mph_hernandez, jd_carroll, phd, mph_2020, title={No time to wait: Commandeering healthcare facilities in the age of COVID-19}, volume={18}, ISSN={1543-5865 1543-5865}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.5055/jem.2020.0524}, DOI={10.5055/jem.2020.0524}, abstractNote={In this editorial, we address the urgent need to rapidly expand hospital and ICU capacity during the COVID-19 pandemic and future infectious disease outbreaks. As a remedy to this problem currently plaguing many US municipalities, we discuss states' Emergency Takings Power, an alternative to eminent domain proceedings that allows the immediate commandeering of vacant hospitals without exorbitant costs or the need to litigate fair market price up front. We briefly describe the legal basis for emergency takings power and how states can empower local municipalities to act on that power during public health emergencies.}, number={7}, journal={Journal of Emergency Management}, publisher={Weston Medical Publishing}, author={El-Sabawi, JD, PhD, Taleed and Beletsky, JD, MPH, Leo and Hernandez, JD, Cynthia and Carroll, PhD, MPH, Jennifer J.}, year={2020}, month={Jul}, pages={41–43} }
 @article{stone_carroll_rich_green_2020, title={One year of methadone maintenance treatment in a fentanyl endemic area: Safety, repeated exposure, retention, and remission}, volume={115}, ISSN={0740-5472}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108031}, DOI={10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108031}, abstractNote={Fentanyl is a potent synthetic opioid that has contributed to increasing overdose deaths in the United States in recent years. Concern over safety and efficacy of agonist treatment for fentanyl use may limit access to treatment. This study sought to address these potential concerns in a naturalistic setting.Measure 12-month treatment outcomes for methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) in a fentanyl endemic area.Primary: 1) Treatment retention; 2) sustained remission (defined as 3 consecutive negative screens); 3) return to use; 4) methadone dosage required; and 5) number of days to achieve remission. Secondary: Mortality.A naturalistic follow-up study and retrospective review of consecutive patients newly admitted to a single methadone maintenance treatment program in Rhode Island.We observed 154 unique intake events (representing 151 patients). Eighty percent (n = 121) tested positive for fentanyl at intake. Seventy-five percent of patients achieved remission within the 12-month study period. One-year retention was 53% for fentanyl-exposed individuals and 47% for those not exposed. The majority (99%) of patients who remained in treatment at 12 months achieved remission. We saw prolonged, sustained remission in 44% of patients exposed to fentanyl at intake and 47% of those who were not. Dose and time to remission were similar. Unfortunately, 4 patients died after leaving MMT prematurely.This study suggests MMT is safe despite repeated exposure to fentanyl while taking methadone. Remission is achievable, and MMT is protective against death among fentanyl-exposed patients while in treatment.}, journal={Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Stone, Andrew C. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rich, Josiah D. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2020}, month={Aug}, pages={108031} }
 @article{carroll_lira_lunze_colasanti_del rio_samet_2020, title={Painful Subjects: Treating Chronic Pain among People Living with HIV in the Age of Opioid Risk}, volume={35}, ISSN={0745-5194 1548-1387}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/maq.12618}, DOI={10.1111/maq.12618}, abstractNote={Public narratives often attribute the opioid overdose epidemic in the United States to liberal prescribing practices by health care providers. Consequently, new monitoring guidelines for the management of opioid prescriptions in patients with chronic pain have become recognized as key strategies for slowing this tide of overdose deaths. This article examines the social and ontological terrain of opioid-based pain management in an HIV clinic in the context of today's opioid overdose epidemic. We engage with anthropological analyses of contemporary drug policy and the nonverbal/performative ways patients and clinicians communicate to theorize the social context of the opioid overdose epidemic as a "situation," arguing that the establishment of new monitoring strategies (essentially biomedical audit strategies) trouble patient subjectivity in the HIV clinic-a place where that subjectivity has historically been protected and prioritized in the establishment of care.}, number={2}, journal={Medical Anthropology Quarterly}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Lira, Marlene C. and Lunze, Karsten and Colasanti, Jonathan A. and del Rio, Carlos and Samet, Jeffrey H.}, year={2020}, month={Nov}, pages={141–158} }
 @inproceedings{el-sabawi_carroll_2020, title={Politics, Policies, and the Opioid Crisis: Variations in Public Health Responses}, author={El-Sabawi, Taleed and Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2020}, month={Sep} }
 @inproceedings{formica_waye_benintendi_yan_bagley_keosaian_beletsky_carroll_xuan_green_et al._2020, title={Post-overdose Outreach Programs Aim to Reach People Who Use Drugs in the Days Immediately Following a Non-Fatal Overdose}, author={Formica, Scott W. and Waye, Katherine M. and Benintendi, Allyn and Yan, Shapei and Bagley, Sarah and Keosaian, Julia and Beletsky, Leo and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Xuan, Ziming and Green, Traci and et al.}, year={2020}, month={Jun} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_cummins_walley_formica_waye_2020, title={Safety Protocols During Home-Based Post-Overdose Outreach Visits: Perspectives from Public Health/Public Safety Teams}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Cummins, Emily and Walley, Alexander Y. and Formica, Scott and Waye, Katherine}, year={2020}, month={Oct} }
 @article{sereda_kiriazova_makarenko_carroll_rybak_chybisov_bendiks_idrisov_dutta_gillani_et al._2020, title={Stigma and quality of co‐located care for HIV‐positive people in addiction treatment in Ukraine: a cross‐sectional study}, volume={23}, ISSN={1758-2652 1758-2652}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25492}, DOI={10.1002/jia2.25492}, abstractNote={Abstract Introduction Co‐located treatment for HIV and opioid use disorder has been shown to improve care outcomes for HIV‐positive people who inject drugs (PWID) in Ukraine. However, patients continue to be stigmatized for both HIV and substance use. This study aimed to assess whether co‐located care for HIV‐positive PWID receiving opioid agonist treatment (OAT) services in Ukraine is associated with less stigma and better perceived quality of HIV services. Methods This cross‐sectional study enrolled 191 HIV‐positive PWID who received OAT services at three healthcare facilities providing substance use treatment (OAT only) and at four facilities that provided co‐located care (both OAT and HIV treatment) in six regions in Ukraine during July‐September, 2017. Primary outcomes were HIV stigma (Berger scale), substance use stigma (Substance Abuse Stigma Scale) and intersectional stigma (both stigma forms above 75th percentile). Secondary outcome was quality of HIV care, a composite score based on a package of received services. Linear and ordinal regressions were used to assess the predictors of selected outcomes. Results Study participants were 75% male, mean age 40 ± 7 years; 47% received co‐located care, and 10.5% had both high HIV and substance use stigma. Co‐located care was neither associated with HIV nor substance use stigma but it was linked to better quality of HIV care (adjusted odds ratio: 4.13; 95% CI: 2.31, 7.54). HIV stigma was associated with suicide attempts (adjusted beta (aβ): 5.90; 95% CI: 2.05, 9.75), and substance use stigma was linked to poor mental health (aβ: −0.26; 95% CI: −0.44, −0.08) and lower likelihood of receipt of services from non‐governmental organization (NGO; aβ: −6.40; 95% CI: −10.23, −2.57). Conclusion One in ten people with HIV in this cohort who received OAT services experienced high levels of both HIV and substance use stigma, which was associated with poorer mental health and less NGO support. Co‐located HIV and OAT services were linked to better perceived quality of HIV care, but did not seem to reduce stigma for this key population. Stigma interventions for PWID, possibly delivered involving NGOs, may be an approach to mitigate this challenge.}, number={5}, journal={Journal of the International AIDS Society}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Sereda, Yuliia and Kiriazova, Tetiana and Makarenko, Olena and Carroll, Jennifer J and Rybak, Natasha and Chybisov, Andriy and Bendiks, Sally and Idrisov, Bulat and Dutta, Arunima and Gillani, Fizza S and et al.}, year={2020}, month={May} }
 @article{carroll_mullins_burnham-lemaire_korycinski_pierce_martinez_el-sabawi_2020, title={Student Perceptions of a University Medical Amnesty Policy Are Impacted by Race and Racism: A Qualitative Study}, volume={56}, ISSN={1082-6084 1532-2491}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1846199}, DOI={10.1080/10826084.2020.1846199}, abstractNote={Alcohol consumption on college and university campuses is a public health concern. Some universities have instituted medical amnesty policies (MAPs) to encourage calling first responders to the sce...}, number={2}, journal={Substance Use & Misuse}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Mullins, Cameron and Burnham-Lemaire, Georgia and Korycinski, Hannah and Pierce, Hannaleigh and Martinez, Mackenzie and El-Sabawi, Taleed}, year={2020}, month={Dec}, pages={185–191} }
 @article{carroll_rich_green_2020, title={The protective effect of trusted dealers against opioid overdose in the U.S.}, volume={78}, ISSN={0955-3959}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102695}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102695}, abstractNote={Opioid overdose has become the leading cause of death among adults between 25 and 54 years old in the U.S. The purpose of this study is to explore the social and relational factors that shape the current opioid overdose epidemic. Between January 2016 and February 2017, adults in Providence, Rhode Island, who use opioids were recruited to complete structured survey and semi-structured interview about the social context of their substance use. A total of 92 individuals completed a survey and an interview. Of those, 51 individuals (68.6% male, 49.0% white) discussed their relationships with drug suppliers in their interview and were included in this sub-study. Many of these participants indicated that long-term relationships with trusted dealers represent a key strategy for reducing the risk of substance use-related harm due to suppliers’ alleged adoption of consumer protection strategies (e.g. refusing to sell fentanyl) and quality assurance measures (e.g. testing batches of drugs for fentanyl prior to sale). Interpersonal relationships between individuals who use drugs and their suppliers strongly influence the risk and protective factors experienced by people who use drugs in today's opioid overdose epidemic. Evidence-based prevention strategies that are based on an awareness of—or even designed to harness—those positive and/or protective relationships that people who use drugs have already constructed for themselves are likely merited.}, journal={International Journal of Drug Policy}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rich, Josiah D. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2020}, month={Apr}, pages={102695} }
 @article{mital_wolff_carroll_2020, title={The relationship between incarceration history and overdose in North America: A scoping review of the evidence}, volume={213}, ISSN={0376-8716}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108088}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108088}, abstractNote={Rates of opioid overdose (OD) have risen to unprecedented numbers and more than half of incarcerated individuals meet the criteria for substance use disorder, placing them at high risk. This review describes the relationship between incarceration history and OD. A scoping review was conducted and criteria for inclusion were: set in North America, published in English, and non-experimental study of formerly incarcerated individuals. Due to inconsistent definitions of opioid OD, we included all studies examining OD where opioids were mentioned. The 18 included studies were all published in 2001 or later. Four associations between incarceration history and OD were identified: (1) six studies assessed incarceration history as a risk factor for OD and four found a significantly higher risk of OD among individuals with a history of incarceration compared to those without; (2) nine studies examined the rate of OD compared to the general population: eight found a significantly higher risk of fatal OD among those with a history of incarceration and three documented the highest risk of death immediately following release; (3) six studies found demographic, substance use and mental health, and incarceration-related risk factors for OD among formerly incarcerated individuals; and (4) four studies assessed the proportion of deaths due to OD and found a range from 5 % to 57 % among formerly incarcerated individuals. Findings support the growing call for large-scale implementation of evidence-based OD prevention interventions in correctional settings and among justice-involved populations to reduce OD burden in this high-risk population.}, journal={Drug and Alcohol Dependence}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Mital, Sasha and Wolff, Jessica and Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2020}, month={Aug}, pages={108088} }
 @misc{carroll_alcock_2020, title={Trust and the Test: Producing Narrative Certainty in an Evolving Pandemic}, url={http://somatosphere.net/2020/trust-and-test.html/}, journal={Somatosphere}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Alcock, Hannah}, year={2020}, month={Jun} }
 @misc{carroll_2020, title={What was Semashko and What Comes Next? Understanding Primary Health Care Reform in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2020}, month={Oct} }
 @inbook{carroll_noonan_wolff_2019, title={Building Effective Public Health and Public Safety Collaborations to Prevent Opioid Overdose at the Local, State, and Federal Levels}, ISBN={9780190056810 9780190056841}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190056810.003.0020}, DOI={10.1093/oso/9780190056810.003.0020}, abstractNote={This chapter describes the public health role in the Overdose Response Strategy (ORS), a public health/public safety collaboration between the Office of National Drug Control Policy’s High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas program and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The mission of the ORS is to reduce opioid overdose incidents by developing and sharing information about heroin, fentanyl, and other opioids across state and federal agencies. In addition, the ORS supports states in implementing evidence-based strategies to combat the opioid overdose epidemic, especially where those strategies are informed by local data. Teams comprising one drug intelligence officer and one public health analyst work in each of the 24 ORS states. Challenges and opportunities of public health and law enforcement collaboration are described.}, booktitle={A Public Health Guide to Ending the Opioid Epidemic}, publisher={Oxford University Press}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Noonan, Rita K. and Wolff, Jessica}, year={2019}, month={Oct}, pages={241–252} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2019, title={Drug Overdoses Town Hall}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, month={Jul} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2019, title={Evidence-Based Strategies for Preventing Opioid Overdose}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, month={Apr} }
 @inproceedings{stone_carroll_rich_green_2019, title={Fentanyl Use and Outcomes in a Methadone Treatment Program: 1-year Follow-Up}, author={Stone, Andrew C. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rich, Jody R. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2019}, month={Apr} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2019, title={Finding Successful Prevention Strategies Through Overdose Fatality Reviews}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, month={Aug} }
 @book{carroll_2019, place={Ithaca, NY}, title={Narkomania: Drugs, HIV, and Citizenship in Ukraine}, ISBN={9781501736933}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/9781501736933}, DOI={10.7591/9781501736933}, publisher={Cornell University Press}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2019}, month={Jun} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2019, title={Narkomania: Drugs, HIV, and Citizenship in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, month={Nov} }
 @misc{carroll_2019, place={New York, NY}, title={Narkomania: Drugs, HIV, and Citizenship in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019} }
 @misc{carroll_2019, title={Race, Health Equity, and the Opioid Epidemic: A Panel Discussion}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, month={Apr} }
 @misc{carroll_2019, place={Berkeley, CA}, title={Review of Helena Hansen’s Addicted to Christ: Remaking Men in Puerto Rican Pentecostal Drug Ministries}, volume={3}, url={https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/JEA/article/download/6753/5838}, DOI={10.5617/jea.6753}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Extreme Anthropology}, publisher={University of California Press}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, pages={173–176} }
 @inproceedings{podolsky_mital_martinez_green_wolff_noonan_carroll_2019, title={Safety and Liability Concerns and Naloxone Deployment in Response to an Opioid Overdose Among Patrol Officers}, author={Podolsky, Melissa C. and Mital, Sasha and Martinez, Pedro and Green, Traci C. and Wolff, Jessica and Noonan, Rita K. and Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2019}, month={Jun} }
 @article{carroll_2019, title={Sovereign Rules and Rearrangements: Banning Methadone in Occupied Crimea}, volume={38}, ISSN={0145-9740 1545-5882}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2018.1532422}, DOI={10.1080/01459740.2018.1532422}, abstractNote={In 2014, Russian authorities in occupied Crimea shut down all medication-assisted treatment (MAT) programs for patients with opioid use disorder. These closures dramatically enacted a new political order. As the sovereign occupiers in Crimea advanced new constellations of citizenship and statehood, so the very concept of “right to health” was re-tooled. Social imaginations of drug use helped single out MAT patients as a population whose “right to health,” protected by the state, would be artificially restricted. Here, I argue that such acts of medical disenfranchisement should be understood as contemporary acts of statecraft.}, number={6}, journal={Medical Anthropology}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2019}, pages={508–522} }
 @inproceedings{del rio c_cheng_colasanti_liebschutz_lira_forman_shanahan_root_bridden_outlaw_et al._2019, place={Mexico City, Mexico}, title={Targeting Effective Analgesia in Clinics for HIV (TEACH): a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) to Improve Satisfaction, Confidence, and Trust around Chronic Opioid Therapy in HIV Care}, author={del Rio C, Tsui J. and Cheng, D and Colasanti, J and Liebschutz, J and Lira, M and Forman, L and Shanahan, C and Root, C and Bridden, C and Outlaw, K and et al.}, year={2019}, month={Jul} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2019, title={The Future is Fractured: Insiders/Outsiders in the Theory Generation}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2019}, month={Mar} }
 @article{rhodes_costenbader_wilson_hershow_carroll_zule_golin_brinkley-rubinstein_2019, title={Urban, individuals of color are impacted by fentanyl-contaminated heroin}, volume={73}, ISSN={0955-3959}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.07.008}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.07.008}, abstractNote={The present phase of the overdose epidemic is characterized by fentanyl-contaminated heroin, particularly in the eastern United States (U.S.). However, there is little research examining how changes in drug potency are affecting urban, racial minority individuals who have been affected by both the “old” epidemic of the 1940s through 1980s, as well as the “new” present day epidemic. A focus on the drug using experiences of racial minorities is needed to avoid perpetuating discriminatory responses to drug use in communities of color, which have characterized past U.S. policies. This qualitative study was conducted from March through June 2018 to examine recent experiences of urban, individuals of color who inject drugs to assess the impact of the current overdose epidemic on this understudied population. Interviews were conducted with 25 people who reported current injection drug use. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using a general inductive approach to identify major themes. Fifteen of 25 participants reported experiencing a non-fatal overdose in the past two years; eight suspected their overdose was fentanyl-related. Likewise, 15 had ever witnessed someone else overdose at least once. Overdoses that required multiple doses of naloxone were also reported. Participants employed several methods to attempt to detect the presence of fentanyl in their drugs, with varying degrees of success. Carrying naloxone and utilizing trusted drug sellers (often those who also use) were strategies used to minimize risk of overdose. Contaminated heroin and increased risk for overdose was often encountered when trusted sources were unavailable. This population is suffering from high rates of recent overdose. Removal of trusted drug sources from a community may inadvertently increase overdose risk. Ensuring access to harm reduction resources (naloxone, drug testing strips) will remain important for addressing ever-increasing rates of overdose among all populations affected.}, journal={International Journal of Drug Policy}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Rhodes, Blythe and Costenbader, Betsy and Wilson, Loftin and Hershow, Rebecca and Carroll, Jennifer and Zule, William and Golin, Carol and Brinkley-Rubinstein, Lauren}, year={2019}, month={Nov}, pages={1–6} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_mullins_pierce_martinez_2019, title={‘If you’re Black and Using Drugs Then People Don’t Want to Help You’: Substance Use, Harm Reduction, and Default Whiteness on a College Campus}, author={Carroll, J. and Mullins, C. and Pierce, H. and Martinez, M.}, year={2019}, month={Nov} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2018, title={A Comprehensive Assessment of 911 Good Samaritan Laws: Attitudes, Implementation, and Effect}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2018}, month={Oct} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2018, title={A Comprehensive Assessment of 911 Good Samaritan Laws: Attitudes, Implementation, and Effect}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2018}, month={Apr} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2018, title={Anthropological Interventions in the Opioid Crisis}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2018} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2018, title={Decolonizing Queer Performance, Practice, Experience: Examples from Post-Socialism}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2018}, month={Nov} }
 @book{carroll_green_noonan_2018, title={Evidence-Based Strategies for Preventing Opioid Overdose: What’s Working in the United States}, url={http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/pdf/pubs/2018-evidence-based-strategies.pdf}, institution={National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Green, Traci C. and Noonan, Rita K.}, year={2018} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2018, title={Fentanyl and Feelings: A Bio-cultural Understanding of Synthetic Opioids in the Illicit Drug Market}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2018}, month={Nov} }
 @article{carroll_colasanti_lira_del rio_samet_2018, title={HIV Physicians and Chronic Opioid Therapy: It’s Time to Raise the Bar}, volume={23}, ISSN={1090-7165 1573-3254}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-2356-2}, DOI={10.1007/s10461-018-2356-2}, abstractNote={Clinical practice that utilizes chronic opioid therapy has been recognized as one major cause of the opioid crisis. Among patients living with HIV, the risks associated with chronic opioid therapy may be complicated by factors such as co-occurring mental health diagnoses, substance use, and economic marginalization. Improving opioid prescribing practices in HIV clinics requires attention to these and other characteristics common to HIV care. In the context of a randomized controlled trial testing an intervention to improve opioid prescribing practices in HIV outpatient clinics, we interviewed physicians about their perspectives on chronic opioid therapy. Overwhelmingly, physicians voiced ambivalence about their own knowledge and comfort with prescription opioids. They raised concerns about the impact of opioid prescribing on patient-provider relationships and the increasing workload associated with prescribing and monitoring patients. In this report, we explore these concerns and propose several strategies for improving clinical care in which chronic opioid therapy is addressed.}, number={4}, journal={AIDS and Behavior}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Colasanti, Jonathan and Lira, Marlene C. and del Rio, Carlos and Samet, Jeffrey H.}, year={2018}, month={Dec}, pages={1057–1061} }
 @inproceedings{stone_carroll_green_rich_2018, title={Methadone Maintenance Treatment for Fentanyl Use: Dose, Retention in Treatment, and Relapse}, author={Stone, Andrew C. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Green, Traci C. and Rich, Jody R.}, year={2018}, month={Apr} }
 @article{stone_carroll_rich_green_2018, title={Methadone maintenance treatment among patients exposed to illicit fentanyl in Rhode Island: Safety, dose, retention, and relapse at 6 months}, volume={192}, ISSN={0376-8716}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.019}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.019}, abstractNote={Illicitly manufactured fentanyl (IMF) is a potent synthetic opioid that has been contributing to overdose deaths in the United States. This study examined intake toxicology and six-month treatment outcomes for patients newly admitted to a single methadone maintenance treatment program (MMTP) in Rhode Island with a high prevalence of illicit fentanyl. We conducted a retrospective chart review of patients admitted to a single MMTP between November 1st, 2016 and August 31st, 2017 followed for six months. Outcomes measured included: 1) retention in treatment at 6 months; 2) evidence of sustained abstinence; 3) relapse; 4) methadone dosage required to achieve sustained abstinence; and 5) the number of days required to achieve abstinence. We observed 154 unique intake events (representing 147 patients). 80% (n = 123) tested positive for fentanyl at intake. During the six-month follow up period, 32% (n = 49) left treatment before six months, two individuals died within five weeks of discontinuation. No deaths were seen among those remaining in treatment. The majority (89%) who remained in treatment at six months achieved abstinence. No significant difference was seen for dose or time to achieve abstinence. Relapse was common (57%). Repeated exposure to fentanyl was seen frequently (71%) while in MMT before and after achieving abstinence. While there is concern that the potency of IMF may reduce the effectiveness of MAT, this study suggests that MMT is safe, abstinence achievable, and MMT is protective against death among fentanyl-exposed patients.}, journal={Drug and Alcohol Dependence}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Stone, Andrew C. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rich, Josiah D. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2018}, month={Nov}, pages={94–97} }
 @misc{carroll_2018, title={Narkomania: What drug users can teach us about society, politics, and going to war with Russia}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2018}, month={Apr} }
 @misc{carroll_2018, title={Putin’s war Against Ukraine: revolution, nationalism, and crime}, volume={34}, ISSN={2159-9165 2159-9173}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21599165.2018.1532890}, DOI={10.1080/21599165.2018.1532890}, abstractNote={"Putin’s war Against Ukraine: revolution, nationalism, and crime." East European Politics, 34(4), pp. 507–508}, number={4}, journal={East European Politics}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2018}, month={Oct}, pages={507–508} }
 @article{carroll_rich_green_2018, title={Reducing Collateral Damage in Responses to the Opioid Crisis}, volume={108}, ISSN={0090-0036 1541-0048}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304270}, DOI={10.2105/AJPH.2017.304270}, abstractNote={AffiliationsJennifer J. Carroll is with the Department of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, RI. Traci C. Green is with the Department of Emergency Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, and the Departments of Medicine and Epidemiology at Brown Medical School. Josiah D. Rich is with the Departments of Medicine and Epidemiology at Brown University, and is the Director of the Center for Prisoner Health and Human Rights at the Miriam Hospital, Providence.}, number={3}, journal={American Journal of Public Health}, publisher={American Public Health Association}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rich, Josiah D. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2018}, month={Mar}, pages={349–350} }
 @misc{carroll_2018, title={Shock Therapy: Psychology, Precarity, and Well‐being in Postsocialist Russia. Tomas Matza, Durham: Duke University Press, 2018, 305 pp.}, volume={33}, ISSN={0745-5194 1548-1387}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/maq.12495}, DOI={10.1111/maq.12495}, abstractNote={Medical Anthropology QuarterlyVolume 33, Issue 3 BOOK REVIEW Shock Therapy: Psychology, Precarity, and Well-being in Postsocialist Russia. Matza, Tomas, Durham: Duke University Press, 2018, 305 pp. Jennifer J. Carroll, Elon UniversitySearch for more papers by this author Jennifer J. Carroll, Elon UniversitySearch for more papers by this author First published: 18 December 2018 https://doi.org/10.1111/maq.12495AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume33, Issue3September 2019 RelatedInformation}, number={3}, journal={Medical Anthropology Quarterly}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2018}, month={Dec} }
 @misc{carroll_2018, title={Sunder Rajan, Kaushik. Pharmocracy: value, politics, and knowledge in global biomedicine. xiv, 328 pp., fig., bibliogr. Durham, N.C.: Duke Univ. Press, 2017. £23.99 (paper)}, volume={24}, ISSN={1359-0987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9655.12943}, DOI={10.1111/1467-9655.12943}, number={4}, journal={Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2018}, month={Nov}, pages={852–853} }
 @article{carroll_rich_green_2018, title={The More Things Change: Buprenorphine/naloxone Diversion Continues While Treatment Remains Inaccessible}, volume={12}, ISSN={1932-0620 1935-3227}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/adm.0000000000000436}, DOI={10.1097/adm.0000000000000436}, abstractNote={Buprenorphine/naloxone, an evidence-based treatment for opioid use disorder, is sometimes diverted for non-medical use. In Rhode Island, the prevalence of opioid use and, more recently, of fentanyl in the illicit drug supply is driving overdose fatalities, which increases the need for treatment and raises questions about the changing role of diverted medication in shaping overdose risk.This study considered data from 2 Rhode Island based studies (conducted in 2009 and 2016, respectively) of people who use illicit or diverted prescription opioids and their patterns of buprenorphine/naloxone diversion. Using targeted sampling, individuals who use opioids completed a brief questionnaire about their drug use. For the 2016 study, logistic regression was used to identify associations with recent and lifetime use of diverted medication.A total of 128 individuals who use opioids non-medically participated in the 2016 study. Of these, 38% (n = 13) reported diverted buprenorphine/naloxone use in the past 2 months, similar to the pattern observed in 2009 (41%, n = 41). Common motivations for using diverted medication included the management of withdrawal symptoms (40%, n = 35) and self-treatment of opioid use disorder (39%, n = 34). Few reported using to "get high" (12%, n = 4). Seeking buprenorphine/naloxone treatment in the previous 12 months was positively associated with using diverted medication in the past 2 months (odds ratio = 5.14, 95% confidence interval = 1.0-26.5, P = 0.05). Participants of both studies reported the same barriers to care in 2009 and 2016.The use of diverted/buprenorphine remains common among people who use opioids non-medically and indicates a severe shortage in treatment capacity and inaccessibility of existing services.}, number={6}, journal={Journal of Addiction Medicine}, publisher={Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Rich, Josiah D. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2018}, month={Nov}, pages={459–465} }
 @article{dethier_rybak_hirway_bachmaha_carroll_sorokolit_flanigan_sluzhynska_2018, title={The changing face of women living with HIV in western Ukraine}, volume={29}, ISSN={0956-4624 1758-1052}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956462417724708}, DOI={10.1177/0956462417724708}, abstractNote={Ukraine has the second largest HIV epidemic in Eastern Europe/Central Asia. This study characterizes the demographics of HIV-infected women in the Lviv region of western Ukraine, patterns in their clinical presentation, and factors associated with delays in seeking care. A retrospective chart review was conducted of 622 HIV-infected women who registered for HIV treatment at the Lviv AIDS Center between 2008 and 2013. A total of 81.6% of women were infected through heterosexual transmission and the remaining 18.4% through intravenous drug use. Slightly less than half (45.4%) was between 26 and 35 years old. Slightly more than half (56.7%) listed their residence in a city, 22.6% in villages. One-third (30.0%) of all women presented with AIDS, and 37.7% presented with symptomatic conditions. Women diagnosed with HIV during antenatal care experienced a median delay of 34 days between diagnosis and registration, compared to 87.5 days for nonpregnant women tested in the context of intravenous drug use. Overall, HIV-infected women in western Ukraine experience time delays in care, and often present with advanced HIV disease and secondary complications. Linkage to care in a timely manner is a high priority and substantial challenge for women, particularly for intravenous drug users who may face stigma and other additional barriers.}, number={4}, journal={International Journal of STD & AIDS}, publisher={SAGE Publications}, author={Dethier, Divya and Rybak, Natasha and Hirway, Priya and Bachmaha, Mariya and Carroll, Jennifer and Sorokolit, Andriy and Flanigan, Timothy and Sluzhynska, Maryana}, year={2018}, pages={318–323} }
 @misc{carroll_2017, title={Drug Use and the Politics of Social Order in Wartime Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2017}, month={Apr} }
 @article{carroll_marshall_rich_green_2017, title={Exposure to fentanyl-contaminated heroin and overdose risk among illicit opioid users in Rhode Island: A mixed methods study}, volume={46}, ISSN={0955-3959}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.05.023}, DOI={10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.05.023}, abstractNote={Illicit fentanyl use has become wide spread in the US, causing high rates of overdose deaths among people who use drugs. This study describes patterns and perceptions of fentanyl exposure among opioid users in Rhode Island. A mixed methods study was conducted via questionnaire with a convenience sample of 149 individuals using illicit opioids or misusing prescription opioids in Rhode Island between January and November 2016. Of these, 121 knew of fentanyl and reported known or suspected exposure to fentanyl in the past year. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the first 47 participants. Study participants were predominantly male (64%) and white (61%). Demographic variables were similar across sample strata. Heroin was the most frequently reported drug of choice (72%). Self-reported exposure to illicit fentanyl in the past year was common (50.4%, n = 61). In multivariate models, regular (at least weekly) heroin use was independently associated with known or suspected fentanyl exposure in the past year (adjusted prevalence ratio (APR) = 4.07, 95% CI: 1.24–13.3, p = 0.020). In interviews, users described fentanyl as unpleasant, potentially deadly, and to be avoided. Participants reporting fentanyl exposure routinely experienced or encountered non-fatal overdose. Heroin users reported limited ability to identify fentanyl in their drugs. Harm reduction strategies used to protect themselves from fentanyl exposure and overdose, included test hits, seeking prescription opioids in lieu of heroin, and seeking treatment with combination buprenorphine/naloxone. Participants were often unsuccessful in accessing structured treatment programs. Among illicit opioid users in Rhode Island, known or suspected fentanyl exposure is common, yet demand for fentanyl is low. Fentanyl-contaminated drugs are generating user interest in effective risk mitigation strategies, including treatment. Responses to the fentanyl epidemic should be informed by the perceptions and experiences of local users. The rapid scale-up of buprenorphine/naloxone provision may slow the rate of fentanyl-involved overdose deaths.}, journal={International Journal of Drug Policy}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Marshall, Brandon D.L. and Rich, Josiah D. and Green, Traci C.}, year={2017}, month={Aug}, pages={136–145} }
 @inproceedings{stone_carroll_green_rich_2017, title={Illicit Fentanyl in Methadone Patients: Implications for Treatment, Overdose, and Surveillance}, author={Stone, Andrew C. and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Green, Traci C. and Rich, Jody R.}, year={2017}, month={Apr} }
 @article{carroll_2017, title={Image and Imitation: The Visual Rhetoric of Pro-Russian Propaganda}, volume={2}, url={https://www.ideopol.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/________2.5.%20ENG.%20Carrol%20Prefinal.pdf}, number={8}, journal={Ideology and Politics Journal}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2017}, pages={36–79} }
 @misc{carroll_2017, title={Power Struggles: Addiction, War, and Other Conflicts in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2017}, month={Feb} }
 @article{macmadu_carroll_hadland_green_marshall_2017, title={Prevalence and correlates of fentanyl-contaminated heroin exposure among young adults who use prescription opioids non-medically}, volume={68}, ISSN={0306-4603}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.01.014}, DOI={10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.01.014}, abstractNote={The rate of overdose deaths caused by fentanyl-contaminated heroin (FCH) use is increasing rapidly in the United States. We examined risk factors for exposure to FCH and experiences with FCH use among young adult non-medical prescription opioids (NMPO) users. We analyzed data from the Rhode Island Young Adult Prescription Drug Study (RAPiDS), which enrolled young adults aged 18 to 29 reporting prior 30 day NMPO use between January 2015 and February 2016. Participants completed questionnaires ascertaining drug use patterns and risk behaviors, including FCH exposure. Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with known or suspected FCH exposure. Of 199 participants, the median age was 25 (IQR: 22, 27), 130 (65.3%) were male, and 122 (61.3%) were of White, non-Hispanic race/ethnicity. In total, 22 (11%) reported known or suspected FCH exposure in the prior six months. Several drug use patterns and risk behaviors were associated with FCH exposure, including: regular heroin and cocaine use; diverted pharmaceutical fentanyl use in the prior six months; NMPO use to avoid withdrawal symptoms; longer duration of NMPO use; regular injection drug use; and prior overdose (all p < 0.001). Among participants who reported FCH exposure, 59% were unaware that their heroin was contaminated with fentanyl prior to last use, 59% reported that FCH provides a better high, and all recognized that fentanyl increases overdose risk. Exposure to fentanyl-contaminated heroin is an emerging trend among young adult NMPO users in Rhode Island. Overdose prevention programs addressing FCH use are urgently needed.}, journal={Addictive Behaviors}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Macmadu, Alexandria and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Hadland, Scott E. and Green, Traci C. and Marshall, Brandon D.L.}, year={2017}, month={May}, pages={35–38} }
 @misc{carroll_2017, title={Public Health in Wartime}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2017}, month={Feb} }
 @misc{carroll_2016, title={Black Lives Matter Doesn’t Need to Be Polite—It Needs Us to Remember}, url={https://medium.com/the-establishment/black-lives-matter-doesnt-need-to-be-polite-it-needs-us-to-remember-4866fd145d6f}, journal={The Establishment}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, month={Aug} }
 @misc{carroll_2016, title={Blind Spot: How Neoliberalism Infiltrated Global Health. By Salmaan Keshavjee. Oakland: University of California Press, 2014. xxxviii. 240.pp. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $29.95, paperback.}, volume={33}, url={https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/20851/27911}, number={2}, journal={Anthropology of East Europe Review}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, pages={96–98} }
 @book{carroll_wierciński_2016, title={Challenges of Health, Demographic Changes, and Wellbeing in Post-socialist States}, volume={34}, number={1}, journal={Anthropology of East Europe Review}, year={2016} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2016, place={New York, NY}, title={Civil Society and Activism During and Since Maidan}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2016}, month={Apr} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2016, place={Minneapolis, MN}, title={Dima Had to Live and Then Had to Die: Sovereignty, Citizenship, and the Addict’s Right to Health in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, month={Nov} }
 @article{carroll_2016, title={For lack of wanting: Discourses of desire in Ukrainian opiate substitution therapy programs}, volume={53}, ISSN={1363-4615 1461-7471}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1363461515581543}, DOI={10.1177/1363461515581543}, abstractNote={Available treatments for addiction and substance abuse in Ukraine have been shaped by the economic, political, and social shifts that have followed the country's independence. The introduction of methadone-based opiate substitution therapy (OST) for opiate addicts is especially representative of this. Biomedical paradigms of addiction, its etiology, and its treatment, promoted and paid for by international donors and elite global health entities, are being met by Ukrainian notions of personhood and psychology in both public discourse and clinical settings. Ukrainian physicians who work in OST programs frequently reference desire (желание) as the most significant factor in determining the success or failure of treatment. They refer to a desire to be treated, desire to get better, desire to live. The moralized imperative to possess this desire to get better is, in many ways, a reflection of how addiction and the addicted psyche is constructed and understood in the Ukrainian context. By exploring discourses of desire in narratives of addiction and treatment, I examine how notions of psychology, will, and self-control intersect, shaping the subjectivity, agency, and daily experiences of this vulnerable population.}, number={2}, journal={Transcultural Psychiatry}, publisher={SAGE Publications}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2016}, pages={198–216} }
 @article{carroll_ngure_heffron_curran_mugo_baeten_2016, title={Gendered differences in the perceived risks and benefits of oral PrEP among HIV-serodiscordant couples in Kenya}, volume={28}, ISSN={0954-0121 1360-0451}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2015.1131972}, DOI={10.1080/09540121.2015.1131972}, abstractNote={Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is effective for preventing HIV among HIV-serodiscordant heterosexual couples. Gender roles may influence perceived personal and social risks related to HIV-prevention behaviors and may affect use of PrEP. In this study, interviews and focus groups were conducted with 68 individuals from 34 mutually disclosed serodiscordant heterosexual partnerships in Thika, Kenya. Sociocultural factors that affect adherence to PrEP were explored using grounded analysis. Three factors were identified, which shape perceptions of PrEP: gendered power dynamics and control over decision-making in the household; conflicts between risk-reduction strategies and male sexual desire; culture-bound definitions of women's work. Adherence to PrEP in the Partners PrEP Study was high; however, participants articulated conflicting interests related to PrEP in connection with traditional gender roles. The successful delivery of PrEP will require understanding of key social factors, particularly related to gender and dyadic dynamics around HIV serostatus.}, number={8}, journal={AIDS Care}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Ngure, Kenneth and Heffron, Renee and Curran, Kathryn and Mugo, Nelly R. and Baeten, Jared M.}, year={2016}, month={Jan}, pages={1000–1006} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2016, place={Chicago, IL}, title={Governing Difference: Shifting Citizenship Regimes and the Politics of Belonging}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, month={Mar} }
 @article{carroll_heffron_mugo_ngure_ndase_asiimwe_celum_baeten_2016, title={Perceived Risk Among Human Immunodeficiency Virus Serodiscordant Couples in East Africa Taking Oral Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis}, volume={43}, ISSN={1537-4521 0148-5717}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/olq.0000000000000472}, DOI={10.1097/olq.0000000000000472}, abstractNote={Perceived risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is thought to drive low adherence in pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) trials. We explored the level of perceived risk of incident HIV infection in the Partners PrEP Study, in which adherence was generally high.A cross-sectional questionnaire assessed perceived risk of HIV at 12 months after enrollment. Logistic regression was used to analyze the relationship between perceived risk and other demographic and behavioral variables.Three thousand two hundred twenty-six couples from the Partners PrEP Study were included in this analysis. Only 15.4% of participants reported high or moderate perceived risk. Participants at high risk of acquiring HIV were slightly more likely to report high perceived risk (odds ratio, 1.60; 95% confidence interval, 1.30-1.95; P < 0.001); nevertheless, only 20% of participants with high-risk reported high perceived risk.Participants reported low perceived risk of HIV but were adherent to PrEP. Perceptions of risk are likely socially determined and more complex than Likert scale questionnaires capture.}, number={8}, journal={Sexually Transmitted Diseases}, publisher={Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J. and Heffron, Renee and Mugo, Nelly and Ngure, Kenneth and Ndase, Patrick and Asiimwe, Stephen and Celum, Connie and Baeten, Jared M.}, year={2016}, month={Aug}, pages={471–475} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2016, title={Power Struggles: Addiction, War, and Other Conflicts in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, month={Mar} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2016, place={New York, NY}, title={Power Struggles: Addiction, War, and Other Forms of Conflict in Ukraine.}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, month={Apr} }
 @article{carroll_2016, title={The Bright Future Without You}, url={http://jenniferjcarroll.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BrigntFutureWIthoutYou.pdf}, journal={Anthropology News}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2016}, month={Jan} }
 @book{carroll_mcnamara_2016, title={The Politics of Health Equity in Europe}, volume={1}, url={https://www.europenowjournal.org/issues/issue-1/}, journal={EuropeNow}, year={2016}, month={Oct} }
 @misc{carroll_2016, title={The Social Value of Drug Addicts: Uses of the Useless by Merrill Singer and J. Bryan Page. Walnut Creek, CA:Left Coast Press, 2014. 248 pp.}, volume={118}, ISSN={0002-7294}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aman.12545}, DOI={10.1111/aman.12545}, abstractNote={American AnthropologistVolume 118, Issue 2 p. 452-453 BOOK REVIEWS The Social Value of Drug Addicts: Uses of the Useless by Merrill Singer and J. Bryan Page. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2014. 248 pp. Jennifer J. Carroll, Jennifer J. Carroll Brown UniversitySearch for more papers by this author Jennifer J. Carroll, Jennifer J. Carroll Brown UniversitySearch for more papers by this author First published: 14 June 2016 https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.12545Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume118, Issue2June 2016Pages 452-453 RelatedInformation}, number={2}, journal={American Anthropologist}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2016}, month={Jun}, pages={452–453} }
 @article{carroll_2016, title={Why Does Healthcare for People Who Use Drugs in Ukraine Continue to Fail? = Чому система охорони здоров’я в Україні далі іґнорує тих, хто вживає наркотики?}, volume={20}, number={7-8}, journal={Krytyka = Крутика}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016}, month={Oct}, pages={24–29} }
 @article{carroll_2016, title={Writing Grief: Death and Bereavement in Ethnographic Texts}, volume={3}, url={http://www.medanthrotheory.org/article/view/5645/7466}, number={2}, journal={Medicine Anthropology Theory}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2016} }
 @article{carroll_2016, title={Да водиш нормален живот: коментари върху революцията, колективността и социалната дистинкция в Украйна}, volume={45}, number={1}, journal={Критика и Хуманизъм/Critique & Humanism}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2016}, pages={69–88} }
 @article{rybak_carroll_bachmaha_garcia_vasylev_flanigan_sluzhynska_2015, title={HIV Testing and Entry into HIV Care in Lviv, Western Ukraine 2005-2013}, volume={6}, url={https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/hiv-testing-and-entry-into-hiv-care-in-lviv-western-ukraine-20052013-2155-6113-1000494.pdf}, DOI={10.4172/2155-6113.1000494}, abstractNote={Background: Ukraine has one of the largest burdens of HIV in the European region. Over the past decade, significant strides have been made to successfully decrease the rate of HIV transmission. This analysis of HIV testing and entry into care in Western Ukraine provides data in an understudied region of Ukraine.
Methods and findings: We analyzed records of HIV testing by category performed within the Lviv Oblast between 2005 and 2013. We also analyzed aggregate registration data from the Lviv Regional AIDS Center. The three highest HIV risk testing categories and their relative percent positive were 1) sexual contact with known HIV partner (20.5%) 2) current or past intravenous drug use (IDU) (13.5%) and 3) history of incarceration (11.5%). The rates of positive tests for IDU and incarcerated patients decreased over this time period. Evaluation of registration into care demonstrated that between 2005-2008, 36.6 % of positive tests resulted in registration into care compared to 54.5% between 2009- 2013.
Conclusions: New HIV diagnoses have shifted from within predominantly IDU and incarcerated populations to more broad based screening categories consistent with the known shift to a generalized HIV epidemic. The overall rate of registration into care remains low. More efforts are needed to target HIV positive patients to engage them to register for care.}, number={8}, journal={Journal of AIDS and Clinical Research}, author={Rybak, Natasha and Carroll, Jennifer J. and Bachmaha, Mariya and Garcia, Allyson and Vasylev, Marta and Flanigan, Timothy and Sluzhynska, Maryna}, year={2015}, pages={494} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2015, place={Denver, CO}, title={Medical Moralities in the Quotidian Clinic: How Breaking the Rules Creates Success for Long-Term Drug Users in Ukraine.}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2015}, month={Nov} }
 @misc{carroll_2015, place={Riga, Latvia). August}, title={New Ontologies of Healthcare and Self-care}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2015}, month={Aug} }
 @book{carroll_2014, place={New  York, NY}, title={"The Quietest Casualties: Russian Public Health Policies Cause Patient Deaths in Crimea.” Critical Commentary: A Forum for Research and Commentary on Europe}, institution={Council for European Studies, Columbia University}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Sep} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2014, place={New York, NY}, title={EuroMaidan, the Fall of Yanukovych, and Russian Intervention.}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Apr} }
 @article{carroll_2014, place={Seattle, WA}, title={From Ukraine: The heartbreak of victory; the fear of Russia}, url={https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/from-ukraine-the-heartbreak-of-victory-the-fear-of-russia/}, journal={Seattle Times}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Mar} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={From the Streets of Kyiv: ‘We Are Definitely Going Somewhere.’}, url={https://jsis.washington.edu/ellisoncenter/news/from-the-streets-of-kyiv-we-are-definitely-going-somewhere/}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Feb} }
 @article{carroll_2014, title={Key Theories from Critical Medical Anthropology for Public Health Research. Part 2: Medicine in the Social System, Medicine as a Social System.}, volume={4}, url={http://journals.uran.ua/tcphee/article/view/14811}, number={1}, journal={Tobacco Control and Public Health in Eastern Europe}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, pages={41–48} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={Michelle A. Parsons. Dying Unneeded: The Cultural Context of the Russian Mortality Crisis. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2014. 224 pp. $27.95, paper, ISBN 978-0-8265-1973-3.}, url={https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=44190}, journal={H-Net Reviews in the Humanities & Social Sciences}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2014, title={On Dignity: The Breadth and the Limits of EuroMaidan’s Imagined Communities}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Dec} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={People in the Streets, Bodies in the Snow: Bringing the Stakes of EuroMaidan into Focus}, url={https://jsis.washington.edu/ellisoncenter/news/people-in-the-streets-bodies-in-the-snow-bringing-the-stakes-of-euromaidan-into-focus/}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Jan} }
 @article{carroll_2014, title={Reflections on Kyiv’s EuroMaidan: Ethnography of the Unexpected}, url={http://jenniferjcarroll.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/EthnographyOfTheUnexpected.pdf}, journal={Anthropology News}, author={Carroll, J.}, year={2014}, month={Mar} }
 @article{carroll_2014, title={This is not about Europe: Reflections on Kyiv’s EuroMaidan}, volume={44}, number={1}, journal={Perspectives on Europe}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, pages={8–15} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={To Care for Our Own: Public Health and Medical Care in the Time of Revolution}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Oct} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2014, title={Turmoil in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Apr} }
 @article{carroll_2014, title={UW Student in Kiev Sees Destruction—and Dignity}, volume={21}, url={https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/uw-student-in-kiev-sees-destruction-mdash-and-dignity/}, journal={Seattle Times.}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Feb} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={Ukraine Roundtable, Part 1: part of the  What’s Going on in Ukraine}, url={http://anthropoliteia.net/2014/03/28/ukraine-roundtable/}, journal={Allegra: A Virtual Lab in Legal Anthropology and Anthropoliteia weblogs}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014} }
 @article{carroll_2014, title={Ukraine’s EuroMaidan Isn’t Just for the Right}, url={https://www.yalejournal.org/publications/ukraines-euromaidan-isnt-just-for-the-right?rq=carroll}, journal={Yale Journal of International Affairs}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Mar} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={Ukraine’s EuroMaidan Isn’t Just for the Right}, url={http://www.criticatac.ro/lefteast/euromaidan-isnt-just-for-the-right/}, journal={LeftEast weblog}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Mar} }
 @misc{carroll_2014, title={Ukraine’s EuroMaidan: An Eyewitness Account of the Revolution}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2014}, month={Apr} }
 @book{carroll_2013, place={Washington, D.C.}, title={Barriers to Treatment Adherence in Ukrainian Tuberculosis Control Programs}, institution={International Research Exchange Board}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2013} }
 @article{carroll_2013, title={Free market tuberculosis: Managing epidemics in post-Soviet Georgia}, volume={8}, ISSN={1744-1692 1744-1706}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2013.840007}, DOI={10.1080/17441692.2013.840007}, number={9}, journal={Global Public Health}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Carroll, Jennifer J.}, year={2013}, month={Oct}, pages={1087–1088} }
 @article{carroll_2013, title={Key Theories from Critical Medical Anthropology for Public Health Research. Part 1: Starting with Foucault: Cultures of medicine and meanings of illness}, volume={3}, number={1}, journal={Tobacco Control and Public Health in Eastern Europe}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2013}, pages={39–46} }
 @misc{carroll_2013, title={My Best-Worst Day in Ukraine: On Research, Relationships, and Other Contradictions From the Field}, url={https://jsis.washington.edu/ellisoncenter/news/my-best-worst-day-in-ukraine/}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2013}, month={Feb} }
 @misc{carroll_2013, title={My Best-Worst Day in Ukraine: On Research, Relationships, and Other Contradictions From the Field}, url={http://www.criticatac.ro/lefteast/my-best-worst-day-in-ukraine-on-research-relationships-and-other-contradictions-from-the-field-2/.}, journal={LeftEast}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2013}, month={Mar} }
 @article{carroll_2013, title={Social and Political Embeddedness of Approaches to Health and Illness: Author’s Response}, volume={3}, number={1}, journal={Tobacco Control and Public Health in Eastern Europe}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2013}, pages={59–60} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2013, title={‘This is not American Heroin’: Social Illness, Chemical Therapies, and Biomedical Pluralism in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2013} }
 @article{carroll_2012, title={Evidence Based Medicine and the Construction of Moral Agency in Ukraine}, volume={9}, url={http://cargojournal.org/index.php/cargo/article/view/46}, number={1/2}, journal={CARGO: Journal for Cultural and Social Anthropology}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2012}, pages={25–50} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2012, title={Methadone as Medicine: The Biomedicalization of Drug Addiction in Ukrainian Substitution Therapy Programs}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2012}, month={Jun} }
 @article{carroll_2011, title={A Woman Among Addicts: the Production and Management of Identities in a Ukrainian Harm Reduction Organization}, volume={29}, url={https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/1056}, number={1}, journal={Anthropology of East Europe Review}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2011}, pages={23–34} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2011, title={Scientific Stuff: The (Re)Negotiation of Local Knowledge and Medical Discourse in Ukraine}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2011}, month={Nov} }
 @misc{carroll_2011, place={Princeton}, title={Scripting Addiction: The Politics of Therapeutic Talk and American Sobriety by E. Summerson Carr}, url={http://somatosphere.net/2012/10/book-review-summerson-carrs-scripting-addiction.html.}, publisher={Princeton University Press}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2011} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2010, title={Bodies at Risk: Determining Health and Responsibility in Ukrainian Harm Reduction and HIV-Prevention Programs}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2010}, month={Nov} }
 @inproceedings{carroll_2009, title={A Woman Among Addicts: Exploring Gendered Roles and Identity in a Ukrainian HIV-Prevention Program}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2009}, month={Dec} }
 @misc{carroll_2009, edition={Kaleidoscopic Odessa: History and Place in Contemporary Ukraine}, title={Tanya Richardson, Kaleidoscopic Odessa: History and Place in Contemporary Ukraine. (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2008)}, volume={27}, url={https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/270/346}, number={1}, journal={Anthropology of East Europe Review}, author={Carroll, Jennifer}, year={2009}, pages={99–100} }