@article{hudson_alford_bilbo_boyle_doughty_kuhar_lopez_mcintyre_stawara_walgenbach_et al._2023, title={Living mulches reduce natural enemies when combined with frequent pesticide applications}, volume={357}, ISSN={["1873-2305"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.agee.2023.108680}, abstractNote={Agricultural intensification with frequent pesticide applications often diminishes biological control services delivered by beneficial insects. However, re-integrating diverse and structurally complex non-crop habitat may mitigate negative effects by providing refugia to natural enemies, enabling rapid recolonization of pesticide-treated crops. This study examines the compatibility of chemical control with non-crop habitat management by manipulating pesticide treatments and living mulches between rows of zucchini crops in four replicated experiments across the Southeastern United States. The hypothesis was that living mulches and pesticide applications would each negatively impact pests and have interactive effects on predatory insects, with negative pesticide effects being attenuated in plots with untreated living mulches serving as refugia for predators between crop rows. Instead, combining living mulches with pesticide applications reduced natural enemy densities, relative to bare plots. Pesticide applications had no effect on spotted and striped cucumber beetle pests, while living mulches directly reduced them by 25%. Conversely, pesticide applications reduced squash bug pressure by 50%, while living mulches had no effect. Although crops were grown in plastic mulch to protect them from competition, living mulches reduced zucchini yields by 54% at sites where living mulches were less-managed. Alternatively, living mulches had more neutral effects on yields at sites where mulches were mowed monthly, suggesting that living mulches require management to minimize competition with crops. These results suggest that the grass-dominated living mulches tested in this study did little to harmonize chemical and biological control. While non-crop plant diversity has clear benefits for natural pest suppression in many systems, these benefits cannot be generalized across all plant and insect taxa. Future efforts to fine-tune management of non-crop habitat within fields will be strengthened by consideration of traits of key pests and their specific responses to both pesticide applications and plant diversity.}, journal={AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Hudson, T. Blake and Alford, Adam M. and Bilbo, Tom R. and Boyle, Sean C. and Doughty, Helene B. and Kuhar, Thomas P. and Lopez, Lorena and McIntyre, Kelly C. and Stawara, Allison K. and Walgenbach, James F. and et al.}, year={2023}, month={Nov} }
 @article{ranger_parajuli_gresham_barnett_villani_walgenbach_baysal-gurel_owen jr_reding_2023, title={Type and duration of water stress influence host selection and colonization by exotic ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)}, volume={3}, ISSN={["2673-8600"]}, DOI={10.3389/finsc.2023.1219951}, abstractNote={Fungus-farming ambrosia beetles in the tribe Xyleborini tunnel into plants and trees to establish chambers for cultivating their nutritional fungal mutualists and rearing offspring. Some xyleborine ambrosia beetles preferentially infest and perform better in living but weakened trees. Flood stress predisposes horticultural tree crops to infestation, but the impact of drought stress has not been well studied. Our objectives were to compare the effects of flood stress vs. drought stress on host selection and colonization by xyleborine ambrosia beetles and to assess the duration of flooding. Container-grown Cornus florida L. trees were flood stressed using a pot-in-pot system to submerge the roots in water while drought-stressed conditions were imposed by withholding irrigation and precipitation. When experimental trees were held under field conditions for 14 days, 7.5 × more ambrosia beetles landed on stems of the flood-stressed than on the drought-stressed trees. During two additional experiments over 14 and 22 days, ambrosia beetles tunneled into the flood-stressed trees but not the drought-stressed or standard irrigation trees. By simultaneously deploying trees that were flood stressed for varying lengths of time, it was found that more tunnel entrances, and xyleborine adults and offspring were recovered from trees that were flooded for 1–16 days and 7–22 days than from trees that were flooded for 14–29 days and 28–43 days. These results indicate that acute and severe drought stress does not predispose C. florida to infestation, but flood stress and the duration of flooding influence ambrosia beetle host selection and colonization. Understanding the role of host quality on ambrosia beetle preference behavior will assist with predicting the risk of infestation of these opportunistic insects in horticultural tree crops.}, journal={FRONTIERS IN INSECT SCIENCE}, author={Ranger, Christopher M. and Parajuli, Madhav and Gresham, Sean and Barnett, Jenny and Villani, Sara and Walgenbach, James and Baysal-Gurel, Fulya and Owen Jr, James S. and Reding, Michael E.}, year={2023}, month={Jul} }
 @article{bilbo_kennedy_walgenbach_2023, title={Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) field resistance to spinetoram in North Carolina}, volume={165}, ISSN={["1873-6904"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2022.106168}, DOI={10.1016/j.cropro.2022.106168}, abstractNote={The western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), “WFT”) is an invasive pest of fruit and vegetable crops throughout the southeastern United States. The spinosyn insecticides spinetoram (Radiant®) and spinosad (SpintTor®) have been used to manage WFT in NC tomatoes for >20 years. Control failures with spinetoram were reported by growers in the Piedmont of NC beginning in the mid-2010s. The goal of this study was to investigate the development of WFT resistance to Radiant in tomato fields in Piedmont and mountain production regions of NC. In 2019 and 2020, WFT populations were collected from staked-tomato fields and subjected to dose-response bioassays to estimate lethal concentration values (LC50) for comparison with a susceptible laboratory colony. In 2021, additional populations were collected from each region and evaluated using diagnostic doses of Radiant (100 and 1000 PPM v/v). Results from dose-response bioassays revealed resistance ratios (RR50) as high as 1487.7 in populations from Rowan County in the Piedmont. Additional diagnostic dose bioassays conducted in 2021 further supported reduced susceptibility to Radiant in all five tested populations. Populations from Henderson County in the mountains were much more susceptible than those in the Piedmont, with resistance rations of only 1.18 and 26.15. Bioassays with a single highly resistant colony over 17 generations found survival to remain mostly constant. These results provide evidence supporting the development of practical, field-evolved resistance to spinetoram in WFT in NC, and the need for improved insecticide resistance management strategies.}, journal={CROP PROTECTION}, author={Bilbo, Tom R. and Kennedy, George G. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2023}, month={Mar} }
 @article{illán_zhu_walgenbach_acebes‐doria_agnello_alston_andrews_beers_bergh_bessin_et al._2022, title={Evaluating invasion risk and population dynamics of the brown marmorated stink bug across the contiguous <scp>United States}, volume={78}, ISSN={1526-498X 1526-4998}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ps.7113}, DOI={10.1002/ps.7113}, abstractNote={Abstract BACKGROUND Invasive species threaten the productivity and stability of natural and managed ecosystems. Predicting the spread of invaders, which can aid in early mitigation efforts, is a major challenge, especially in the face of climate change. While ecological niche models are effective tools to assess habitat suitability for invaders, such models have rarely been created for invasive pest species with rapidly expanding ranges. Here, we leveraged a national monitoring effort from 543 sites over 3 years to assess factors mediating the occurrence and abundance of brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB, Halyomorpha halys), an invasive insect pest that has readily established throughout much of the United States. RESULTS We used maximum entropy models to estimate the suitable habitat of BMSB under several climate scenarios, and generalized boosted models to assess environmental factors that regulated BMSB abundance. Our models captured BMSB distribution and abundance with high accuracy, and predicted a 70% increase in suitable habitat under future climate scenarios. However, environmental factors that mediated the geographical distribution of BMSB were different from those driving abundance. While BMSB occurrence was most affected by winter precipitation and proximity to populated areas, BMSB abundance was influenced most strongly by evapotranspiration and solar photoperiod. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that linking models of establishment (occurrence) and population dynamics (abundance) offers a more effective way to forecast the spread and impact of BMSB and other invasive species than simply occurrence‐based models, allowing for targeted mitigation efforts. Implications of distribution shifts under climate change are discussed. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.}, number={11}, journal={Pest Management Science}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Illán, Javier Gutiérrez and Zhu, Gengping and Walgenbach, James F and Acebes‐Doria, Angel and Agnello, Arthur M and Alston, Diane G and Andrews, Heather and Beers, Elisabeth H and Bergh, J Christopher and Bessin, Ricardo T and et al.}, year={2022}, month={Aug}, pages={4929–4938} }
 @article{bilbo_owens_golec_walgenbach_2022, title={Impact of insecticide programs on pests, the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis, and staked tomato profitability}, ISSN={["1526-4998"]}, DOI={10.1002/ps.6866}, abstractNote={BACKGROUND
Various insecticides are available to manage diverse pest complexes in commercial vegetable production, but knowledge gaps exist regarding their overall performance in pest suppression, profitability, and compatibility with biological control. We conducted trials in staked tomatoes in western North Carolina in 2017-2018 to compare how different insecticide programs managed key pests and their interactions with Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, a predator of the twospotted spider mite (TSSM, Tetranychus urticae Koch). Treatments compared no insecticides to broad-spectrum ('hard') foliar applications, selective ('soft') foliar applications, and to chemigation of selective systemic insecticides. Treatment efficacy was based on pest control, net profitability, and Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) ratings comparing environmental and human health risks.


RESULTS
All programs similarly suppressed aphids, while flower thrips and flea beetle populations were low and unaffected by program. Only the 'hard' foliar program suppressed TSSM (including P. persimilis), which quickly rebounded. This program inhibited biological control, and eventual TSSM suppression was likely caused by P. persimilis immigrating from nearby plots. All programs were generally equivalent in reducing fruit damage. Net profits were similar among insecticide programs, which were significantly greater than in untreated plots. Yield and profit trends were similar both years, but impacted by record flooding in 2018.


CONCLUSION
Safer and more selective chemigation and 'soft' foliar programs were as effective and economical as the 'hard' foliar program, while also conserving biological control. These results support existing research demonstrating that improved insecticide use can be integrated with biological control for more profitable and environmentally sustainable vegetable production.}, journal={PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE}, author={Bilbo, Tom R. and Owens, David R. and Golec, Julian R. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2022}, month={Mar} }
 @article{ogburn_ohmen_huseth_reisig_kennedy_walgenbach_2022, title={Temperature-driven differences in phenology and habitat suitability for brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys, in two ecoregions of North Carolina}, volume={96}, ISSN={1612-4758 1612-4766}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10340-022-01497-1}, DOI={10.1007/s10340-022-01497-1}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Pest Science}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, author={Ogburn, Emily C. and Ohmen, Thomas M. and Huseth, Anders S. and Reisig, Dominic D. and Kennedy, George G. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2022}, month={Apr}, pages={373–387} }
 @article{ogburn_heintz-botz_talamas_walgenbach_2021, title={Biological control of Halymorpha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in apple orchards versus corn fields and their adjacent woody habitats: High versus low pesticide-input agroecosystems}, volume={152}, ISSN={["1090-2112"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104457}, abstractNote={Halymorpha halys is an invasive pest in the USA that inflicts damage to specialty crops, and conventional growers have increased use of broad-spectrum insecticides to manage this pest. The impacts of pest management programs on natural enemies of H. halys were examined in high vs. low intensity insecticide input agroecosystems in western North Carolina (USA). Apple orchards and corn fields, with their adjacent wooded habitats, served as the high and low-input environments, respectively. Sentinel egg masses and yellow sticky cards were deployed in these agroecosystems to compare predation and parasitism on H. halys eggs, and presence, abundance, and richness of natural enemies. A total of approximately 85% of all sentinel eggs deployed in apple orchards in both 2018 and 2019 produced a healthy stink bug nymph, higher than all other habitats. A total of 26.6% and 32.9% of eggs deployed in wooded habitats bordering corn exhibited mortality due to natural enemy attack in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Comparatively, eggs deployed in apple borders had 10.0% and 17.8% of total eggs killed by natural enemies, in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Corn agroecosystems generally had greater predation and parasitism of sentinel eggs, and greater richness and abundance of predators detected on yellow sticky cards compared to apple agroecosystems. Wooded habitats bordering crops serve as population reservoirs for H. halys, allowing for egg laying and dispersal into crops. If these areas are protected as refuge areas free from insecticide drift, such as from apple orchards, they can also harbor thriving natural enemy populations that could reduce populations of H. halys. Wooded areas free from harsh broad-spectrum insecticides are an important component for successful conservation and augmentative biological control in neighboring crops.}, journal={BIOLOGICAL CONTROL}, author={Ogburn, Emily C. and Heintz-Botz, Amelia S. and Talamas, Elijah J. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2021}, month={Jan} }
 @article{walgenbach_schoof_bosch_escudero-colomar_lingren_krawczyk_2021, title={Comparison of Sex Pheromone and Kairomone-Enhanced Pheromone Lures for Monitoring Oriental Fruit Moth (Lepidoptera:Tortricidae) in Mating Disruption and Non-Disruption Tree Fruit Orchards}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1938-2936"]}, DOI={10.1093/ee/nvab056}, abstractNote={Abstract Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), populations were monitored using standard sex pheromone lures (OFM L2) and kairomone-enhanced lures to aid the interpretation of trap captures with enhanced relative to conventional lures. Initially, comparison of 10 different lures showed that a10X load of OFM pheromone, codlemone, terpinyl acetate, and acetic acid were key components of the most attractive lures (TRE11034 and 1123). Subsequent trapping studies in mating disruption and non-disrupted orchards in the United States and Spain compared trap captures with TRE1123 and OFM L2 lures. Compared to the OFM L2 lure, the TRE1123 lure captured more moths in mating disruption and non-disrupted orchards, caught female moths, improved the precision of mean population estimates, and led to greater resolution of generational flights. Suppression of trap captures in mating disruption versus non-disrupted orchards was similar with both lures. There were significant linear correlations between weekly trap captures with the two lures in the majority of mating disruption and non-disrupted orchards across locations and years. Furthermore, regression of the slopes of trap capture regressions (i.e., attractiveness of enhanced lures relative to sex pheromone lures alone) versus moth density (as measured by mean cumulative moth capture with TRE1123 and OFM L2 lures) exhibited a significant positive relationship in non-disrupted orchards, indicating enhanced lures were relatively more attractive under high population densities. This relationship was not significant in mating disruption orchards, likely due to the density independent, non-competitive mechanism of mating disruption for oriental fruit moth when using high-dose reservoir dispensers.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Walgenbach, James F. and Schoof, Steven C. and Bosch, Dolors and Escudero-Colomar, Lucia-Adriana and Lingren, Bill and Krawczyk, Grzegorz}, year={2021}, month={Oct}, pages={1063–1074} }
 @article{walgenbach_bilbo_tussey_ogburn_2021, title={Comparison of chemigationversusfoliar insecticide use: management of lepidopteran larvae and stink bugs in North Carolina field tomatoes with environmental and farmworker benefits}, volume={77}, ISSN={["1526-4998"]}, DOI={10.1002/ps.6074}, abstractNote={BACKGROUND
Commercial vegetable production in the United States of America (USA) often relies on foliar insecticide sprays for managing key insect pests. However, foliar applications of insecticides have a number of drawbacks to the health of consumers, farmworkers, and the environment. Drip chemigation is the application of pesticides to the soil through trickle (drip) irrigation systems, and can overcome a number of the drawbacks typical of foliar insecticide applications.


RESULTS
We conducted a two-year study in five commercial fields of staked tomatoes in western North Carolina to compare the efficacy, economics, and environmental impact of drip chemigation versus foliar sprays. Drip chemigation significantly reduced insecticide inputs, utilized more selective and environmentally compatible insecticides, and reduced the time lost to reentry intervals, while maintaining comparable efficacy and economic returns.


CONCLUSIONS
Drip chemigation was an effective tool for managing key insect pests, provided a broad range of human and environmental health benefits, and will likely become increasingly cost effective in the future as insecticide patents expire and more insecticide options become available. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.}, number={2}, journal={PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE}, author={Walgenbach, James F. and Bilbo, Tom R. and Tussey, Dylan A. and Ogburn, Emily C.}, year={2021}, month={Feb}, pages={758–765} }
 @article{mcdougall_ogburn_walgenbach_nielsen_2021, title={Diapause Termination in Invasive Populations of the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in Response to Photoperiod}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1938-2936"]}, DOI={10.1093/ee/nvab089}, abstractNote={Abstract Understanding cues for diapause termination in insects can be valuable in predicting phenological events in their lifecycles. Once identified, such cues can be utilized as a biofix, the point at which the majority of individuals within a population begin to accumulate degree days. We investigated the impact of photoperiod on completion of reproductive diapause in the invasive eastern North American population of the brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), by exposing diapausing females to varying light regimes in otherwise identical environments. The critical photoperiod estimated to initiate reproductive development in at least 50% of the potential reproductive population was 13.0–13.5 h, with increasing photoperiods coinciding with increased probability of females reproducing, earlier time to first oviposition, and higher rates of fecundity. These data on the species' response to photoperiod are in agreement with previous modeling that predicted the twin constraints of photoperiod and temperature on H. halys reproduction prevents populations that undergo diapause from producing more than two generations annually anywhere within the continental U.S. However, the facultative nature of diapause in H. halys leaves open the possibility that sub-populations may not enter diapause in some conditions, potentially allowing for additional annual generations.}, number={6}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={McDougall, Robert N. and Ogburn, Emily C. and Walgenbach, James F. and Nielsen, Anne L.}, year={2021}, month={Dec}, pages={1400–1406} }
 @article{alford_kuhar_hamilton_jentsch_krawczyk_walgenbach_welty_2020, title={Baseline Toxicity of the Insecticides Bifenthrin and Thiamethoxam on Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Collected From the Eastern United States}, volume={113}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/toz361}, abstractNote={Abstract Brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål), is an invasive species in the United States that attacks a wide variety of agricultural commodities including fruits, vegetables, agronomic crops, and ornamental plants. Populations of H. halys adults were collected from four and six states in 2017 and 2018, respectively, and tested using topical applications to establish baseline levels of susceptibility to two commonly used insecticides, bifenthrin and thiamethoxam. A Probit-estimated (95% fiducial limits) LD50 and LD99 of 2.64 g AI/L (1.2–3.84 g AI/L) and 84.96 g AI/L (35.76–716.16 g AI/L) for bifenthrin, and a LD50 and LD99 of 0.05 g AI/liter (1.14E-5–0.27 g AI/L) and 150.11 g AI/L (27.35–761,867 g AI/L) for thiamethoxam, respectively.These baseline levels can be used for future insecticide resistance monitoring in H. halys.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Alford, Adam and Kuhar, Thomas P. and Hamilton, George C. and Jentsch, Peter and Krawczyk, Grzgorz and Walgenbach, James F. and Welty, Celeste}, year={2020}, month={Apr}, pages={1043–1046} }
 @article{bilbo_walgenbach_2020, title={Compatibility of Bifenazate and Phytoseiulus persimilis for Management of Twospotted Spider Mites in North Carolina Staked Tomatoes}, volume={113}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/toaa159}, abstractNote={Abstract The twospotted spider mite (TSSM, Tetranychus urticae Koch) is a key pest of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicon L. [Solanales: Solanaceae]) in North Carolina, and its management has relied principally on synthetic acaricides. Augmentative biological control of TSSM is a commonplace and effective management strategy in greenhouses worldwide, but in field-grown vegetable crops biocontrol of TSSM is poorly developed. We conducted small-plot field experiments in 2016 and 2019 to test the ability of the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, to establish, disperse, and reduce TSSM in staked tomatoes, as well as test their compatibility with a commonly used reduced-risk acaricide, bifenazate (Acramite). Across both years, the most effective treatment for reducing TSSM was the combination of P. persimilis + Acramite. Phytoseiulus persimilis successfully established both years, but its population growth and dispersal were greater in 2016 than 2019. Acramite alone significantly reduced TSSM pressure in 2019 and P. persimilis alone did not reduce TSSM pressure below the control in either year. However, results in 2016 were influenced by the eventual dispersal of P. persimilis into all experimental plots, despite efforts to hinder their movement with corn barriers. Results in 2019 were influenced by the late-season invasion of TSSM into the trial, which delayed P. persimilis releases and influenced their establishment and growth. This study is the first to demonstrate the utility and limitations of P. persimilis in staked field tomatoes, which is a promising option for growers to manage TSSM in tomatoes in the southeast United States.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Bilbo, Tom R. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2020}, month={Oct}, pages={2096–2103} }
 @article{golec_hoge_walgenbach_2020, title={Effect of biopesticides on different Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) life stages}, volume={128}, ISSN={["1873-6904"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cropro.2019.105015}, abstractNote={Tetranychus urticae Koch management in many specialty crops relies on intensive pesticide use and has led to rapid evolution of acaricide-resistant populations. These concerns, along with public concern regarding conventional pesticide safety, has generated interest in the use of biopesticides for managing T. urticae. Biopesticides evaluated included the bacterial products Grandevo DF 2 (Chromobacterium subtsugae strain PRAA4-1) and Venerate EP (Burkholderia spp. strain A396), the botanical-based product GOS Neem 7-way (azadirachtin), and the emulsified mineral oil product TriTek. Bifenazate (Acramite 50WP), a synthetic acaricide, and a water-treated control were included for comparative purposes. Contact and residual effects were evaluated using equivalent labeled field rates against T. urticae egg, larval, nymphal and adult life stages. Exposure route (contact or residual) was significant for eggs and larval and nymphal mortality after 24-h exposure. GOS Neem 7-way, TriTek, and Acramite were ovicidal under contact exposure only. Most biopesticides caused >50% larval mortality, yet only Acramite achieved 100% morality. Biopesticides were less toxic to nymphs relative to larvae, and Acramite and Grandevo DF 2 caused >50% nymphal morality. Only Acramite caused significantly higher adult mortality than the control 24-h post treatment. Except for Venerate, all treatments significantly reduced fecundity of surviving adults, with the greatest reduction by Acramite and Grandevo. With the exception of Acramite and a high rate of Grandevo, all treatments exhibited exponential population growth over five generations. However, most biopesticides evaluated exhibited significant mortality on various T. urticae life stages, and if incorporated into management schemes may be useful tools in acaricide resistance management programs for T. urticae.}, journal={CROP PROTECTION}, author={Golec, Julian R. and Hoge, Brianna and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2020}, month={Feb} }
 @article{ogburn_walgenbach_2020, title={Impact of Temperature Storage Conditions of Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Eggs on Parasitism by Anastatus reduvii (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae)}, volume={113}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/toz274}, abstractNote={Abstract Brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys Stål, is an invasive species of Asian origin that is an important agricultural pest in the eastern United States. Sentinel egg masses are tools used to assess the impact of natural enemies on H. halys populations. To determine the effect of host egg age and storage conditions on their susceptibility to parasitism, H. halys eggs were stored at different temperatures for different lengths of time and then exposed to Anastatus reduvii (Howard), a native natural enemy of H. halys occurring in eastern North America. For eggs stored at 15, 20, and 25°C and then exposed to A. reduvii, the number of host eggs from which parasitoid offspring emerged declined with age of eggs. Control eggs (exposed to parasitoids without being stored) and those eggs stored for only 5.5 degree-days (DD) (=0.5 days) at 25°C yielded the highest percentage of parasitoids at 88.2 and 88.3%, respectively. For eggs stored at 20 and 25°C for 7.3 DD to about 36 DD, offspring emerged from about 58 to 73% of eggs, and total parasitism (emerged + unemerged parasitoids) ranged from about 70 to 80%. Parasitoid emergence was significantly lower for host eggs stored at 15°C for comparable times at 20 and 25°C. Stink bugs nymphs hatched from <0.6% of all eggs. Parasitoid-induced host egg abortion was an important component of egg mortality caused by A. reduvii, with underdeveloped stink bug nymphs, undifferentiated cell contents, and parasitoid host feeding occurring across all storage treatments.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Ogburn, Emily C. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2020}, month={Feb}, pages={98–107} }
 @article{ludwick_morrison_acebes-doria_agnello_bergh_buffington_hamilton_harper_hoelmer_krawczyk_et al._2020, title={Invasion of the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) into the United States: Developing a National Response to an Invasive Species Crisis Through Collaborative Research and Outreach Efforts}, volume={11}, ISSN={["2155-7470"]}, DOI={10.1093/jipm/pmaa001}, abstractNote={
 Halyomorpha halys (Stål), the brown marmorated stink bug, is a globally invasive stink bug species. Its first major outbreak was in the United States, where it has caused millions of dollars in damage, threatened livelihoods of specialty crop growers and impacted row crop growers, and become an extreme nuisance pest in and around dwellings. The BMSB IPM Working Group, funded by the Northeastern IPM Center, was central to providing a mechanism to form a multidisciplinary team and develop initial and subsequent research, Extension, regulatory and consumer priorities. Ultimately, a project team consisting of over 50 scientists from 11 institutions in 10 states obtained the largest ever USDA-NIFA Specialty Crop Research Initiative CAP grant, totaling over $10.7 million, to tackle this crisis over a 5-yr period (2011–2016). Researchers and Extension educators integrated stakeholder feedback throughout the course of the project, and priorities evolved according to needs of affected growers and public stakeholders. Initially, the team focused on identification of H. halys, its damage symptoms and crop-specific risks, and short-term mitigation strategies for crop protection. Subsequently, work focused on its biology, ecology, and behavior leading to the development of potential longer-term IPM tactics and landscape level management solutions, including biological control. This work continues under a second SCRI CAP grant (2016–2021). The information from the initial team reached an estimated 22,000 specialty crop stakeholder contacts via Extension efforts, and over 600 million people via mainstream media. We highlight the main lessons learned from coordinating a national response to the threat posed by H. halys to agriculture in the United States.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT}, author={Ludwick, Dalton and Morrison, William R., III and Acebes-Doria, Angelita L. and Agnello, Arthur M. and Bergh, J. Christopher and Buffington, Matthew L. and Hamilton, George C. and Harper, Jayson K. and Hoelmer, Kim A. and Krawczyk, Gregory and et al.}, year={2020}, month={Mar} }
 @article{acebes-doria_agnello_alston_andrews_beers_bergh_bessin_blaauw_buntin_burkness_et al._2020, title={Season-Long Monitoring of the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Throughout the United States Using Commercially Available Traps and Lures}, volume={113}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/toz240}, abstractNote={Abstract Reliable monitoring of the invasive Halyomorpha halys abundance, phenology and geographic distribution is critical for its management. Halyomorpha halys adult and nymphal captures on clear sticky traps and in black pyramid traps were compared in 18 states across the Great Lakes, Mid-Atlantic, Southeast, Pacific Northwest and Western regions of the United States. Traps were baited with commercial lures containing the H. halys pheromone and synergist, and deployed at field sites bordering agricultural or urban locations with H. halys host plants. Nymphal and adult captures in pyramid traps were greater than those on sticky traps, but captures were positively correlated between the two trap types within each region and during the early-, mid- and late season across all sites. Sites were further classified as having a low, moderate or high relative H. halys density and again showed positive correlations between captures for the two trap types for nymphs and adults. Among regions, the greatest adult captures were recorded in the Southeast and Mid-Atlantic on pyramid and sticky traps, respectively, with lowest captures recorded in the West. Nymphal captures, while lower than adult captures, were greatest in the Southeast and lowest in the West. Nymphal and adult captures were, generally, greatest during July–August and September–October, respectively. Trapping data were compared with available phenological models showing comparable population peaks at most locations. Results demonstrated that sticky traps offer a simpler alternative to pyramid traps, but both can be reliable tools to monitor H. halys in different geographical locations with varying population densities throughout the season.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Acebes-Doria, Angelita L. and Agnello, Arthur M. and Alston, Diane G. and Andrews, Heather and Beers, Elizabeth H. and Bergh, J. Christopher and Bessin, Ric and Blaauw, Brett R. and Buntin, G. David and Burkness, Eric C. and et al.}, year={2020}, month={Feb}, pages={159–171} }
 @article{ogburn_walgenbach_2019, title={Effects of Insecticides Used in Organic Agriculture on Anastatus reduvii (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) and Telenomus podisi (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), Egg Parasitoids of Pestivorous Stink Bugs}, volume={112}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/toy340}, abstractNote={Abstract Lethal and sublethal effects of insecticides used in organic agriculture were tested against Anastatus reduvii and Telenomus podisi, native North American hymenopteran egg parasitoids of the native Euschistus servus Say (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and the invasive Halyomorpha halys Stål. Entrust (spinosad), PyGanic (pyrethrin), Neemix (azadirachtin), and Azera (pyrethrin + azadirachtin) were tested at equivalent field rates of 1×, 0.5×, and 0.1×. Bioassays included insecticide exposure to parasitoids through residue on substrate, parasitized host eggs, and their food source. When exposed to dried residues, Entrust caused 100% mortality at the 0.5× rate to both species; PyGanic, Neemix, and Azera exhibited low toxicity. Exposure of parasitized host eggs to Entrust 1× during the egg stage of parasitoid development reduced parasitoid emergence compared to all other treatments in both species. Anastatus reduvii emergence was also reduced by PyGanic at 0.5× and 1×. Parasitoid emergence from host eggs exposed during the pupal stage was more variable than egg stage exposure; emergence of both species was reduced in 0.5× and 1× rates of PyGanic, and A. reduvii was reduced in the 0.5× rate of Entrust compared to controls. Longevity of emerged parasitoids surviving exposure within host eggs showed that Entrust was more deleterious than Neemix or PyGanic. When A. reduvii was fed insecticide-laced honey, all treatments except Neemix at 0.1× reduced adult longevity compared to the control. These studies demonstrated that insecticides commonly used in organic agriculture can negatively affect two common parasitoids of stink bugs; specifically, negative effects were most pronounced with Entrust, and variable with Neemix and Pyganic.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Ogburn, Emily C. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2019}, month={Feb}, pages={108–114} }
 @article{babu_reisig_walgenbach_heiniger_everman_2019, title={Influence of Weed Manipulation in Field Borders on Brown Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Densities and Damage in Field Corn}, volume={48}, ISSN={0046-225X 1938-2936}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvz016}, DOI={10.1093/ee/nvz016}, abstractNote={Abstract Brown stink bug, Euschistus servus (Say), is a damaging pest of corn, Zea mays L. (Cyperales: Poaceae), in the southeastern United States. In North Carolina, during the spring, winter-planted wheat, Triticum aestivum L. (Cyperales: Poaceae), serves as the earliest available crop host, and E. servus seems to prefer this crop over seedling corn. In the absence of wheat in the agroecosystem, weeds serve as a bridge host for a portion of overwintered E. servus populations until they move to corn and other subsequent crops. Our objective was to reduce densities of E. servus in corn by manipulating the weedy field borders with mowing and applications of dicamba herbicide. During the study, multiple species of stink bugs (n =16) were found associated with weed plots. However, E. servus was the predominant (>94%) stink bug species in the corn. In this farmscape, density of E. servus adults in the unmanaged weed plots began declining around the second week of May, followed by an increase in density in adjacent corn plots. This movement coincided with the seedling growth of corn. In 2016, applications of dicamba in the weedy field border resulted in a lower density of E. servus in herbicide-treated weed plots compared with untreated plots. Despite this difference, manipulations of weeds did not lead to any significant changes in density of E. servus adults in corn. Further evidence suggested that a prominent external source of E. servus, other than field-bordering weeds, in the farmscape was likely driving densities in corn.}, number={2}, journal={Environmental Entomology}, publisher={Oxford University Press (OUP)}, author={Babu, Arun and Reisig, Dominic D and Walgenbach, James F and Heiniger, Ronnie W and Everman, Wesley}, year={2019}, month={Feb}, pages={444–453} }
 @article{mujica_preti_basoalto_cichon_fuentes-contreras_barros-parada_krawczyk_nunes_walgenbach_hansen_et al._2018, title={Improved monitoring of oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with terpinyl acetate plus acetic acid membrane lures}, volume={142}, ISSN={["1439-0418"]}, DOI={10.1111/jen.12528}, abstractNote={Male and female moth catches of Grapholita molesta (Busck) in traps were evaluated in stone and pome fruit orchards untreated or treated with sex pheromones for mating disruption in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, USA, and Italy from 2015 to 2017. Trials evaluated various blends loaded into either membrane cup lures or septa. Membrane lures were loaded with terpinyl acetate (TA), acetic acid (AA) and (Z)‐3‐hexenyl acetate alone or in combinations. Two septa lures were loaded with either the three‐component sex pheromone blend for G. molesta alone or in combination with codlemone (2‐PH), the sex pheromone of Cydia pomonella (L). A third septum lure included the combination sex pheromone blend plus pear ester, (E,Z)‐2,4‐ethyl decadienoate (2‐PH/PE), and a fourth septum was loaded with only β‐ocimene. Results were consistent across geographical areas showing that the addition of β‐ocimene or (Z)‐3‐hexenyl acetate did not increase moth catches. The addition of pear ester to the sex pheromone lure marginally increased moth catches. The use of TA and AA together significantly increased moth catches compared with the use of only one of the two components. Traps with the TA/AA lure outperformed the Ajar trap baited with a liquid TA plus sugar bait. The emission rate of AA was not a significant factor affecting the performance of the TA/AA lure. The addition of TA/AA significantly increased moth catches when combined with the 2‐PH lure. The TA/AA lure also allowed traps to catch both sexes. Catch of C. pomonella with the 2‐PH lure was comparable to the use of codlemone; however, moth catch was significantly reduced with the 2‐PH/PE lure. Optimization of these complex lures can likely further improve managers’ ability to monitor G. molesta and help to develop multispecies tortricid lures for use in individual traps.}, number={8}, journal={JOURNAL OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Mujica, Valentina and Preti, Michele and Basoalto, Esteban and Cichon, Liliana and Fuentes-Contreras, Eduardo and Barros-Parada, Wilson and Krawczyk, Greg and Nunes, Marcelo Z. and Walgenbach, Jim F. and Hansen, Randy and et al.}, year={2018}, month={Sep}, pages={731–744} }
 @article{morrison_acebes-doria_ogburn_kuhar_walgenbach_bergh_nottingham_dimeglio_hipkins_leskey_2017, title={Behavioral Response of the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to Semiochemicals Deployed Inside and Outside Anthropogenic Structures During the Overwintering Period}, volume={110}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/tox097}, abstractNote={The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål), is an invasive species from Asia capable of causing severe agricultural damage. It can also be a nuisance pest when it enters and exits anthropogenic overwintering sites. In recent years, pheromone lures and traps for H. halys have been developed and used to monitor populations in field studies. To date, no study has investigated the applicability of these monitoring tools for use indoors by building residents during the overwintering period. Herein, we 1) assessed when in late winter (diapause) and spring (postdiapause) H. halys begins to respond to its pheromone (10,11-epoxy-1-bisabolen-3-ol), 2) evaluated whether pheromone-based tools can be used reliably for monitoring H. halys adults in unheated and heated buildings, and 3) elucidated the potential for indoor management using pheromone-baited traps. A 2-yr trapping study suggested that H. halys began to respond reliably to pheromone-baited traps after a critical photoperiod of 13.5 h in the spring. Captures before that point were not correlated with visual counts of bugs in buildings despite robust populations, suggesting currently available pheromone-baited traps were ineffective for surveillance of diapausing H. halys. Finally, because baited traps captured only 8-20% of the adult H. halys known to be present per location, they were not an effective indoor management tool for overwintering H. halys. Our study contributes important knowledge about the capacity of H. halys to perceive its pheromone during overwintering, and the ramifications thereof for building residents with nuisance problems.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Morrison, William R., III and Acebes-Doria, Angelita and Ogburn, Emily and Kuhar, Thomas P. and Walgenbach, James F. and Bergh, J. Christopher and Nottingham, Louis and Dimeglio, Anthony and Hipkins, Patricia and Leskey, Tracy C.}, year={2017}, month={Jun}, pages={1002–1009} }
 @article{mathews_blaauw_dively_kotcon_moore_ogburn_pfeiffer_trope_walgenbach_welty_et al._2017, title={Evaluating a polyculture trap crop for organic management of Halyomorpha halys and native stink bugs in peppers}, volume={90}, ISSN={["1612-4766"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10340-017-0838-z}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF PEST SCIENCE}, author={Mathews, Clarissa R. and Blaauw, Brett and Dively, Galen and Kotcon, James and Moore, Jennifer and Ogburn, Emily and Pfeiffer, Douglas G. and Trope, Taliaferro and Walgenbach, James F. and Welty, Celeste and et al.}, year={2017}, month={Sep}, pages={1245–1255} }
 @article{abram_hoelmer_acebes-doria_andrews_beers_bergh_bessin_biddinger_botch_buffington_et al._2017, title={Indigenous arthropod natural enemies of the invasive brown marmorated stink bug in North America and Europe}, volume={90}, ISSN={1612-4758 1612-4766}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/S10340-017-0891-7}, DOI={10.1007/S10340-017-0891-7}, abstractNote={Since the establishment of the brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in North America and Europe, there has been a large, multi-group effort to characterize the composition and impact of the indigenous community of arthropod natural enemies attacking this invasive pest. In this review, we combine 98 indigenous natural enemy datasets spanning a variety of sampling methods, habitats, and geographic areas. To date, the vast majority of H. halys biological control research has focused on the egg stage, using sentinel egg masses to characterize indigenous parasitoid and predator communities and their contribution to H. halys egg mortality. Although egg parasitism and predation levels by indigenous natural enemies are low (typically <10% each) in most surveys, total egg mortality attributable to natural enemies can be higher (typically between 5 and 25%; up to 83%)—even though these values were likely underestimated in most cases because some mortality due to biological control was not recognized. In North America, where the most data are available, it appears that the relative prevalence of different indigenous parasitoid species varies among habitat types, particularly between crop and non-crop habitats. Predator species responsible for egg mortality are much less commonly identified, but appear to include a wide variety of generalist chewing and sucking predators. To date, studies of natural enemies attacking H. halys nymphs and adults are relatively rare. Based on our review, we identify a number of key research gaps and suggest several directions for future research.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Pest Science}, publisher={Springer Nature}, author={Abram, Paul K. and Hoelmer, Kim A. and Acebes-Doria, Angelita and Andrews, Heather and Beers, Elizabeth H. and Bergh, J. Christopher and Bessin, Ric and Biddinger, David and Botch, Paul and Buffington, Matthew L. and et al.}, year={2017}, month={Jun}, pages={1009–1020} }
 @article{nielsen_fleischer_hamilton_hancock_krawczyk_lee_ogburn_pote_raudenbush_rucker_et al._2017, title={Phenology of brown marmorated stink bug described using female reproductive development}, volume={7}, ISSN={["2045-7758"]}, DOI={10.1002/ece3.3125}, abstractNote={Abstract Temperature‐based degree‐day models describe insect seasonality and to predict key phenological events. We expand on the use of a temperature‐based process defining timing of reproduction through the incorporation of female reproductive physiology for the invasive pentatomid species Halyomorpha halys, the brown marmorated stink bug. A five‐stage ranking system based on ovary development was able to distinguish between the reproductive statuses of field‐collected females. Application of this ranking method described aspects of H. halys’ seasonality, overwintering biology, and phenology across geographic locations. Female H. halys were collected in the US from NJ, WV, NC, OR, and two sites in PA in 2006–2008 (Allentown, PA only) and 2012–2014. Results identify that H. halys enters reproductive diapause in temperate locations in the fall and that a delay occurs in developmental maturity after diapause termination in the spring. Modification of the Snyder method to identify biofix determined 12.7‐hr photoperiod as the best fit to define initiation of reproduction in the spring. Applying the biofix, we demonstrated significant differences between locations for the rate at which the overwintering generation transition into reproductive status and the factors contributing to this difference require further study. For example, after including abiotic variables influencing development such as temperature and photoperiod (critical diapause cue), reproduction occurred earlier in OR and for an extended period in NJ. This data describe a method to investigate insect seasonality by incorporating physiological development across multiple regions that can clarify phenology for insects with overlapping generations.}, number={17}, journal={ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION}, author={Nielsen, Anne L. and Fleischer, Shelby and Hamilton, George C. and Hancock, Tori and Krawczyk, Gregorz and Lee, Jana C. and Ogburn, Emily and Pote, John M. and Raudenbush, Amy and Rucker, Ann and et al.}, year={2017}, month={Sep}, pages={6680–6690} }
 @article{ditillo_kennedy_walgenbach_2016, title={Effects of Insecticides and Fungicides Commonly Used in Tomato Production on Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari: Phtyoseiidae)}, volume={109}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/tow234}, abstractNote={Abstract The twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), is an important pest of tomatoes in North Carolina. Resident populations of the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis have recently been detected on field-grown tomatoes in central North Carolina, and potentially can be a useful biological control agent against T. urticae. Laboratory bioassays were used to assess lethal and reproductive effects of 10 insecticides and five fungicides commonly used in commercial tomato production (chlorantraniliprole, spinetoram, permethrin, imidacloprid, dimethoate, dinotefuran, thiamethoxam, bifenthrin, fenpropathrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, azoxystrobin, chlorothalonil, boscalid, cyazofamid, and mancozeb) on P. persimilis adult females and eggs. Insecticides were tested using concentrations equivalent to 1×, 0.5×, and 0.1× of the recommended field rates. Fungicides were tested at the 1× rate only. Dimethoate strongly impacted P. persimilis with high adult mortality, reduced fecundity, and reduced hatch of eggs laid by treated adults, particularly at high concentrations. The pyrethroids lambda-cyhalothrin, bifenthrin, and fenpropathrin were associated with repellency and reproductive effects at high concentrations. Bifenthrin additionally caused increased mortality at high concentrations. Chlorantraniliprole, dinotefuran, and permethrin did not significantly affect mortality or reproduction. Imidacloprid significantly reduced fecundity and egg viability, but was not lethal to adult P. persimilis. Thiamethoxam negatively impacted fecundity at the 1× rate. There were no negative effects associated with fungicide exposure with the exception of mancozeb, which impacted fecundity. Field trials were conducted to explore the in vivo impacts of screened insecticides on P. persimilis populations in the field. Field trials supported the incompatibility of dimethoate with P. persimilis populations.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Ditillo, J. L. and Kennedy, G. G. and Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={2016}, month={Dec}, pages={2298–2308} }
 @article{ogburn_bessin_dieckhoff_dobson_grieshop_hoelmer_mathews_moore_nielsen_poley_et al._2016, title={Natural enemy impact on eggs of the invasive brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), in organic agroecosystems: A regional assessment}, volume={101}, ISSN={1049-9644}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOCONTROL.2016.06.002}, DOI={10.1016/J.BIOCONTROL.2016.06.002}, abstractNote={Understanding native natural enemy impacts on the invasive brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål), offers insight into the population dynamics of this invasive pest and the potential for biological control. This two-year study offers a broad-scale assessment of mortality factors affecting sentinel and naturally laid H. halys eggs in agroecosystems in the pest’s invaded range in eastern North America. Predation and parasitism rates varied among states and crops, but overall were low. Average maximum levels of biological control were estimated to be about 19% and 20% in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Of the eggs destroyed by natural enemies, chewing predation was the most prevalent. Parasitism by native parasitoids was very low, with adult parasitoids emerging from <1% of eggs averaged across crops, locations, and years; an additional 2.8% of eggs contained partially developed parasitoids. Lower percentages of sentinel H. halys hatched in organically versus conventionally managed crops, and in most cases had higher percentages of predation. Parasitism of sentinel and naturally laid eggs of the native stink bugs Euschistus servus (Say) and Chinavia hilare (Say) averaged 49.3% (±8.6 SE) and 0.6% (±0.3), respectively, across locations and years. Telenomus podisi (Ashmead) was the most common parasitoid parasitizing E. servus and H. halys eggs, but rarely did >1 individual parasitoid emerge from a H. halys egg mass. Parasitism of H. halys eggs by a complex of parasitoids is an important population regulation factor in its native Asian range, but this study found that parasitoids native to eastern US agroecosystems do not provide that service in this introduced region. The greatest potential for biological control of H. halys may be via classical biological control by the Asian parasitoid Trissolcus japonicus (Ashmead), which has recently been detected in both the eastern and western US.}, journal={Biological Control}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Ogburn, Emily C. and Bessin, Ricardo and Dieckhoff, Christine and Dobson, Rachelyn and Grieshop, Matthew and Hoelmer, Kim A. and Mathews, Clarissa and Moore, Jennifer and Nielsen, Anne L. and Poley, Kristin and et al.}, year={2016}, month={Oct}, pages={39–51} }
 @article{leskey_agnello_bergh_dively_hamilton_jentsch_khrimian_krawczyk_kuhar_lee_et al._2015, title={Attraction of the invasive Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to traps baited with semiochemical stimuli across the United States}, volume={44}, number={3}, journal={Environmental Entomology}, author={Leskey, T. C. and Agnello, A. and Bergh, J. C. and Dively, G. P. and Hamilton, G. C. and Jentsch, P. and Khrimian, A. and Krawczyk, G. and Kuhar, T. P. and Lee, D. H. and et al.}, year={2015}, pages={746–756} }
 @article{bakken_schoof_bickerton_kamminga_jenrette_malone_abney_herbert_reisig_kuhar_et al._2015, title={Occurrence of Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on Wild Hosts in Nonmanaged Woodlands and Soybean Fields in North Carolina and Virginia}, volume={44}, ISSN={["1938-2936"]}, DOI={10.1093/ee/nvv092}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Nonmanaged plants occurring along forest edges and in suburban settings were sampled for brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Sta° l), in North Carolina (NC) and Virginia (VA) over the course of three growing seasons. Commercial soybeans (Glycine max), an attractive cultivated host, were also sampled in 2014 in NC and in VA from 2010–2014. Very few H. halys were found on nonmanaged plants or soybean fields in the coastal plain region of either state, but substantial populations were recorded in the piedmont and mountain regions. From 2011 to 2013, H. halys comprised from 51 to 97% of all stink bug species observed on nonmanaged plants in the piedmont and mountain regions. In VA, the distribution expanded from detection in 12 counties in 2010 to 53 counties in 2014, with economically damaging levels occurring in the piedmont region. During these studies, H. halys were observed to complete one and a partial second generation per year in western NC and southwestern VA, similar to that previously observed in regions farther north. Several plants were identified as preferred hosts, with tree of heaven, catalpa, yellowwood, paulownia, cherry, walnut, redbud, and grape having consistently high numbers of H. halys. Knowing that these plants are preferred by H. halys during certain stages of the insects' development will aid in the search for H. halys in new areas, as well as serve as one predictor of the likelihood of a certain area to attract and sustain large H. halys populations.}, number={4}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, publisher={Oxford University Press (OUP)}, author={Bakken, A. J. and Schoof, S. C. and Bickerton, M. and Kamminga, K. L. and Jenrette, J. C. and Malone, S. and Abney, M. A. and Herbert, D. A. and Reisig, D. and Kuhar, T. P. and et al.}, year={2015}, month={Aug}, pages={1011–1021} }
 @article{chappell_kennedy_walgenbach_2015, title={Predicting codling moth (Cydia pomonella) phenology in North Carolina on the basis of temperature and improved generation turnover estimates}, volume={71}, ISSN={["1526-4998"]}, DOI={10.1002/ps.3947}, abstractNote={BACKGROUND
The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a major worldwide pest of apples, pears and walnuts. A temperature-driven phenological model of codling moth, developed in Michigan, has been utilized in North Carolina and other states for decades. Systematic inaccuracy of this model in predicting moth emergence in North Carolina suggests that the relationship between emergence and temperature differs between the American midwest and southeast, or that additional factors may influence the system.


RESULTS
A method was developed to optimize the estimation of generation turnover intervals. Emergence was modeled as a function of heat unit accumulation. Significant differences between emergence predictions based on the resultant model and the existing model developed in Michigan were found.


CONCLUSION
A new model of codling moth emergence, incorporating improved estimates for generation turnover for North Carolina, offers predictive improvement with practical importance to management. Differences between the emergence of susceptible and resistant moth populations were also investigated, leading to the suggestion that resistance to insecticides should be considered in future studies of emergence phenology.}, number={10}, journal={PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE}, author={Chappell, Thomas M. and Kennedy, George G. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2015}, month={Oct}, pages={1425–1432} }
 @article{frank_zhang_wright_frank_walgenbach_bergh_leskey_2014, title={Effect of a pheromone antagonist-based disruption blend on dogwood borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) mate-finding and infestation in a commercial apple orchard}, volume={49}, DOI={10.18474/0749-8004-49.1.44}, abstractNote={Abstract The effect of a pheromone antagonist-based disruption blend on disruption of dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris), mate-finding behavior and incidence of infestation was evaluated in a commercial apple orchard from 2006 - 2008. Although the pheromone antagonist-based disruption blend treatment significantly disrupted male mate-finding behavior during each year of the study, there was a significant increase in the percentage of infested trees from the start to the conclusion of the experiment, likely due to the immigration of mated females from surrounding untreated orchard blocks. In 2007, pheromone-baited traps deployed in an east-west transect through the study area showed that capture of male moths increased as the distance from the disruption plot increased. The results of geostatistical analysis indicated that there were high degrees of aggregation in dogwood borer infestations in the study area, with ranges of spatial autocorrelation from 10.2 - 22.5 m. For each year, the spatial distribution of larval infestation was best described by the exponential semiovariogram model. Interpolated surface maps revealed areas of high infestation levels, which were more prevalent within the control 2 plot in 2006 and 2007. Infestation sites increased in size and intensity each year of the study in the disruption and control 1 plot.}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Entomological Science}, author={Frank, D. L. and Zhang, A. J. and Wright, S. E. and Frank, J. S. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Bergh, J. C. and Leskey, T. C.}, year={2014}, pages={44–55} }
 @article{meck_kennedy_walgenbach_2013, title={Effect of Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) on yield, quality, and economics of tomato production}, volume={52}, ISSN={0261-2194}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.CROPRO.2013.05.011}, DOI={10.1016/j.cropro.2013.05.011}, abstractNote={The twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is an important and consistent pest of vegetables in central and western North Carolina, particularly on tomatoes, Solanum lycopersicum L. Small plot experiments were conducted in 2007, 2008 and 2009 in which acaricides were applied to early and late-planted staked tomatoes based on threshold levels ranging from 0 to 50 mites per leaflet, with a non-treated control included. Vine ripe fruit were harvested at weekly intervals from all plots, and fruit were weighed and graded for size and quality. A partial budget analysis was conducted to compare net profitability among treatments. Results from 2007 to 2008 showed that total and marketable yield was higher in plots with low versus high densities of T. urticae, and that yield differences were mostly due to number of fruit harvested rather than size of fruit. In 2009 there were no differences in yields among treatments. Gold fleck caused by T. urticae feeding directly on the fruit was another factor that influenced marketability, with more fruit affected and a higher percentage of surface area affected in higher densities versus lower densities of T. urticae. Net profitability varied considerably among planting dates and years, but an action threshold level to avoid yield losses by T. urticae injury on staked tomatoes appeared to be about eight mites per leaflet on a second or third recently expanded leaf.}, journal={Crop Protection}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Meck, Elijah D. and Kennedy, George G. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2013}, month={Oct}, pages={84–90} }
 @article{jones_hilton_brunner_bentley_alston_barrett_van steenwyk_hull_walgenbach_coates_et al._2013, title={Predicting the emergence of the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on a degree-day scale in North America}, volume={69}, ISSN={["1526-4998"]}, DOI={10.1002/ps.3519}, abstractNote={BACKGROUND
Codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a major pest of apple, pear and walnut production in North America. Management programs are based on preventing larval entry into the fruit or nut and are typically timed by heat-driven models that are synchronized to field populations by first capture of overwintering moths in pheromone traps. Unfortunately, trap capture is affected by a range of environmental parameters as well as by the use of mating disruption, which makes detecting first flight difficult, thus complicating implementation of management programs. The present goal was to evaluate data collected from a broad range of locations across North America to see whether average first spring emergence times could be predicted.


RESULTS
Average emergence time on a degree-day scale from 1 January was predictable using latitude and elevation. Sites at elevations of <400 m fit a simple quadratic equation using latitude, but, when higher elevations were included, a multiple regression using elevation was required.


CONCLUSIONS
The present models can be used to simplify management programs for codling moth in areas where heat-driven models that require extensive trapping to synchronize with emergence are currently used.}, number={12}, journal={PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE}, author={Jones, Vincent P. and Hilton, Richard and Brunner, Jay F. and Bentley, Walt J. and Alston, Diane G. and Barrett, Bruce and Van Steenwyk, Robert A. and Hull, Larry A. and Walgenbach, James F. and Coates, William W. and et al.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={1393–1398} }
 @article{zhang_leskey_bergh_walgenbach_2013, title={Sex Pheromone Dispenser Type and Trap Design Affect Capture of Dogwood Borer}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1573-1561"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10886-013-0251-x}, abstractNote={Using a ternary sex pheromone blend [86:6:6 v:v:v (Z,Z)-3,13-octadecadienyl acetate: (E,Z)-2,13-octadecadienyl acetate: (Z,E)-3,13-octadecadienyl acetate], we tested the effect of dispenser type and trap design for capture of dogwood borer (DWB), Synanthedon scitula Harris (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) in apple orchards in West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina. Wing-style sticky traps baited with polyethylene vial pheromone dispensers captured more male DWB over the first 2 months than traps baited with rubber septum pheromone dispensers. However, catches in vial-baited traps decreased considerably after the first 2 months, possibly due to the antagonistic effect of 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy acetophenone that diffused from the polyethylene vials. By contrast, traps baited with rubber septum dispensers captured DWB males for at least 6 months; over the last four months of the flight season, catches in traps baited with a rubber septum were greater than those in traps baited with a vial dispenser. Therefore, the rubber septum dispenser is recommended for season-long monitoring of DWB. A release-rate study, using laboratory and field-aged dispensers, demonstrated that desorption of DWB sex pheromone from polyethylene vial or rubber septum dispensers followed first order kinetics, with half-lives of 1.6 and 10.7 months, respectively. Several trap designs, including wing-and delta-style sticky traps, and white and green "bucket-style" traps, baited with rubber septum dispensers were compared in commercial apple orchards for catch of DWB. Bucket traps caught more moths when moth populations were high, because the sticky surfaces of the 1C and delta traps likely became saturated. However, among the commercially available traps tested, no particular design gave consistently higher catches. Further work is needed to explore capture mechanisms and maintenance needs of different trap types.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ECOLOGY}, author={Zhang, Aijun and Leskey, Tracy C. and Bergh, J. Christopher and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2013}, month={Mar}, pages={390–397} }
 @article{meck_walgenbach_kennedy_2012, title={Association of Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) feeding and gold fleck damage on tomato fruit}, volume={42}, ISSN={["0261-2194"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cropro.2012.07.027}, abstractNote={The twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch has been established as an indirect pest of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) by reducing yields through plant feeding. Field observations suggested that T. urticae feeding on fruit may have resulted in discoloration known as gold fleck. A series of experiments were undertaken in the field and laboratory to evaluate T. urticae feeding as a cause of gold fleck on the fruit. Field experiments showed that, as cumulative mite days increased, so did the percentage of fruit affected by gold fleck. Results from laboratory experiments showed that T. urticae feeding on tomato fruit did cause gold fleck. This study clearly demonstrated that T. urticae can damage tomato fruit directly in the form of gold fleck, which may impact marketability of that fruit.}, journal={CROP PROTECTION}, author={Meck, Elijah D. and Walgenbach, James F. and Kennedy, George G.}, year={2012}, month={Dec}, pages={24–29} }
 @article{magalhaes_van kretschmar_barlow_roe_walgenbach_2012, title={Development of a rapid resistance monitoring bioassay for codling moth larvae}, volume={68}, ISSN={["1526-4998"]}, DOI={10.1002/ps.3246}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={6}, journal={PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE}, author={Magalhaes, Leonardo C. and Van Kretschmar, Jaap B. and Barlow, Vonny M. and Roe, R. Michael and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2012}, month={Jun}, pages={883–888} }
 @article{magalhaes_walgenbach_2011, title={Life Stage Toxicity and Residual Activity of Insecticides to Codling Moth and Oriental Fruit Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)}, volume={104}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/ec11070}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), are two key pests of apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) in North Carolina. Growers extensively relied on organophosphate insecticides, primarily azinphosmethyl, for >40 yr to manage these pests. Because of organophosphate resistance development and regulatory actions, growers are transitioning to management programs that use new, reduced-risk, and OP-replacement insecticides. This study evaluated the toxicity of a diversity of replacement insecticides to eggs, larvae, and adults, as well as an assessment of their residual activity, to codling moth and oriental fruit moth. Laboratory-susceptible strains of both species were used for all bioassays. Fresh field-harvested apples were used as a media for assessing the ovicidal activity of insecticides. For larval studies, insecticides were topically applied to the surface of lima bean-based diet, onto which neonates were placed. Toxicity was based on two measures of mortality; 5-d mortality and development to adult stage. Ovicidal bioassays showed that oriental fruit moth eggs were generally more tolerant than codling moth eggs to insecticides, with novaluron, acetamiprid, and azinphoshmethyl having the highest levels of toxicity to eggs of both species. In contrast, codling moth larvae generally were more tolerant than oriental fruit moth to most insecticides. Methoxyfenozide and pyriproxyfen were the only insecticides with lower LC50 values against codling moth than oriental fruit moth neonates. Moreover, a number of insecticides, particularly the IGRs methoxyfenozide and novaluron, the anthranilic diamide chlorantriliprole, and the spinosyn spinetoram, provided equal or longer residual activity against codling moth compared with azinphosmethyl in field studies. Results are discussed in relation to their use in devising field use patterns of insecticides and for insecticide resistance monitoring programs.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Magalhaes, Leonardo C. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2011}, month={Dec}, pages={1950–1959} }
 @article{bergh_leskey_walgenbach_klingeman_kain_zhang_2009, title={Dogwood Borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) Abundance and Seasonal Flight Activity in Apple Orchards, Urban Landscapes, and Woodlands in Five Eastern States}, volume={38}, ISSN={["0046-225X"]}, DOI={10.1603/022.038.0304}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT 
 The relative abundance and seasonal flight activity of dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula Harris (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), was measured using weekly records from traps baited with its sex pheromone and deployed in apple orchards, urban landscapes, and native woodland sites in New York, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee in 2005 and 2006. The mean total number of moths captured per site in apple orchards was 3,146 ± 644 and 3095 ± 584 SE in 2005 and 2006, respectively, exceeding captures at urban sites by 16 and 13 times and at woodland sites by 210 and 206 times in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Mean total captures at urban sites exceeded those in woodland habitats by 13 and 16 times in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The mean duration (wk) of the flight period did not differ significantly between apple orchards (22.6 ± 0.6 SE) and urban sites (20.3 ± 1.2 SE). The onset of flight was somewhat later in New York (around early June) than further south (around early to mid-May), but moth captures continued into October in all states. Captures in apple orchards and at urban sites with higher populations were essentially continuous throughout the flight period, with substantial weekly fluctuations, and tended to show a bimodal pattern with peaks from late May through mid-July and from late August through mid-September. Captures at woodland sites tended to occur predominantly from mid-May through about mid-June and were very sporadic thereafter.}, number={3}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Bergh, J. C. and Leskey, T. C. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Klingeman, W. E. and Kain, D. P. and Zhang, A.}, year={2009}, month={Jun}, pages={530–538} }
 @article{meck_walgenbach_kennedy_2009, title={Effect of vegetation management on autumn dispersal of Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) from tomato}, volume={133}, ISSN={["0931-2048"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1439-0418.2009.01413.x}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={9-10}, journal={JOURNAL OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Meck, E. D. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Kennedy, G. G.}, year={2009}, month={Dec}, pages={742–748} }
 @article{leskey_bergh_walgenbach_zhang_2009, title={Evaluation of Pheromone-Based Management Strategies for Dogwood Borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) in Commercial Apple Orchards}, volume={102}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/029.102.0329}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT 
 The dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), is a serious wood-boring pest of apple in eastern North America. The recent identification of its sex pheromone and systematic documentation of the effect of a potent behavioral antagonist affords the opportunity to develop pheromone-based management strategies for this important pest. Here we evaluated the potential of pheromone-based mass trapping of males to reduce dogwood borer infestations and conducted preliminary evaluations of an antagonist-based pheromone blend for disruption of dogwood borer mate finding in commercial apple orchards in North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia. In the mass trapping study, treatments included a conventional trunk-drench application of chlorpyrifos, a low-density mass trapping regime of 5 traps/ha, a higher-density mass trapping regime of 20 traps/ha, and an untreated control. We removed large numbers of males from orchards at all locations, with 27,155, 8,418, and 7,281 removed from high-density trapping plots in North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia, respectively, over 2 yr. After 2 yr under each of these treatment regimes, infestation in high- and low-density mass trapping plots was not reduced to the level of chlorpyrifos-treated plots. An antagonist-based dispenser deployed at a rate of 250/ha effectively disrupted mate-finding by male dogwood borer. In plots with mating disruption dispensers, captures in pheromone-baited traps were virtually eliminated, and no males were captured in traps baited with virgin females.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Leskey, Tracy C. and Bergh, J. Christopher and Walgenbach, James F. and Zhang, Aijun}, year={2009}, month={Jun}, pages={1085–1093} }
 @article{meck_walgenbach_kennedy_2008, title={Phenology of the Apple Maggot (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Southern Appalachian Mountains}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1938-2936"]}, DOI={10.1603/0046-225X(2008)37[1154:POTAMD]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={The apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), is an important pest of apples in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The seasonal phenology of adult flight activity was monitored with baited red sphere traps in eight abandoned apple orchards in the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina and South Carolina in 2004 and 2005, ranging in elevation from 300 to 853 m. Trap captures showed that at elevations of ≥630 m, the apple maggot was primarly univoltine, with adult activity most intense during a 2-mo period from late June to late August in 2004 and from mid-July to mid-September in 2005. At lower elevation sites in North Carolina and South Carolina (300–328 m elevation), adults were active for a 5- to 6-mo period from late May or early June into November. Trap captures suggested the apple maggot was bivoltine at lower elevation sites. There was also evidence from trap captures of distinct early and late emerging flies from overwintering pupae. A winter simulation study in which pupae from maggot-infested apples collected in July (early emergers) and September (late emergers) were exposed to cold treatments (4°C) ranging from 3 to 52 wk showed that the postdiapause rate was more rapid for early versus late emergers when exposed to a minimum 8-wk cold period. For pupae receiving cold treatments ranging from 8 to 19 wk, early emergers eclosed 257–321 DD before late emergers, but this difference was only 146 DD for pupae receiving a 35-wk cold treatment. Climatic conditions in the Southern Appalachian Mountains, including a relatively long growing season and mild winters, are conducive to a more protracted apple maggot emergence period compared with more northern locations.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Meck, Michelle. C. and Walgenbach, James. F. and Kennedy, George G.}, year={2008}, month={Oct}, pages={1154–1161} }
 @article{villanueva_walgenbach_2007, title={Phenology, apple management and effects of Surround on behavior of the maggot (Diptera : Tephritidae) in North Carolina}, volume={26}, ISSN={["1873-6904"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cropro.2006.12.001}, abstractNote={Studies were conducted in 2002 and 2003 to evaluate the phenology of the apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), in Henderson County, NC, and to compare the efficacy of various products for protection of fruit from maggot infestation. The period of peak trap capture on red spheres differed among orchards, with two orchards having peak captures in early June, and in an abandoned orchard peak capture occurred in late July–September. Surround WP, a particle film kaolin clay product, was evaluated for management of apple maggot at 28.0 kg/ha at two spray volumes (935 and 1870 L/ha) and two application intervals (7- and 14-d). The percentage of apple maggot-infested fruit in Surround treatments, regardless of the spray volume evaluated, was equivalent to that of azinphosmethyl and spinosad treatments. Application of Surround with an airblast sprayer resulted in heterogeneous coverage of fruit within the tree canopy, with higher deposition on fruit on the periphery of trees compared with those in the inner or upper canopy. In choice tests with apple maggot populations in an abandoned orchard, fewer flies alighted on Surround-treated foliage or fruit compared with the water controls, suggesting that the whitish color of Surround-treated trees interfered with visual cues used by flies to locate hosts. In an abandoned orchard with >60% of non-treated fruit infested with apple maggot, the chloronicotinyl compounds imidacloprid (10.0%) and thiacloprid (5.3%) resulted in comparable levels of control to that of azinphosmethyl (8.0%), while spinosad, indoxacarb, and thiamethoxam all had >33% infested fruit. These studies demonstrated that Surround and a number of chloronicotinyl insecticides may be alternatives to azinphosmethyl for management of apple maggot in North Carolina.}, number={9}, journal={CROP PROTECTION}, author={Villanueva, Raul T. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2007}, month={Sep}, pages={1404–1411} }
 @article{villanueva_walgenbach_2006, title={Acaricidal properties of spinosad against Tetranychus urticae and Panonychus ulmi (Acari : Tetranychidae)}, volume={99}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/99.3.843}, abstractNote={Laboratory bioassays were conducted to characterize the activity of the insecticide spinosad against the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch) (Acari: Tetranychidae). T. urticae females and larvae were individually placed on bean, Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae), leaf disks treated with four rates of spinosad (25, 55, 121, and 266 ppm) and a water control. Significantly fewer T. urticae completed development on any spinosad rates (<15%) compared with the control (>85%), whereas spinosad exhibited no significant effects on P. ulmi development; 72.5 and 83.1% of P. ulmi completed development on apple (Malus pumila P. Mill, Rosaceae) leaf disks treated with 75 ppm spinosad and the control, respectively. T. urticae adult females placed on spinosad-treated disks had significantly higher mortality and lower oviposition rates compared with the water control; no significant mortality effects were observed until 3 d after placing adults on leaf disks. In choice tests where half of a bean leaf was treated with 55 ppm spinosad transversally or longitudinally, T. urticae females were repelled by spinosad and largely oviposited and fed on nonspinosad treated areas. Spinosad did not affect the behavior of P. ulmi females. When T. urticae females were released on potted bean plants (two-leaf stage) in which leaves received spinosad sprays on the adaxial or abaxial leaf surfaces, or complete spinosad coverage on one or two of the leaves, mite population increase lagged significantly behind those released on control plants. These results indicate that spinosad has significant acaricidal effects against T. urticae but not P. ulmi.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Villanueva, Raul T. and Walgenbach, James F.}, year={2006}, month={Jun}, pages={843–849} }
 @article{leskey_bergh_walgenbach_zhang_2006, title={Attractiveness and specificity of pheromone-baited traps for male dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula Harris (Lepidoptera : Sesiidae)}, volume={35}, ISSN={["1938-2936"]}, DOI={10.1603/0046-225X-35.2.268}, abstractNote={Abstract Captures of male dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris), in traps baited with trinary and binary blends of the female sex pheromone components were compared with those in traps baited with the most effective commercially available lure in apple orchards in West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina. Traps baited with the trinary blend [88:6:6 vol:vol:vol (Z,Z)-3,13 octadecadienyl acetate (ODDA):(E,Z)-2,13-ODDA:(Z,E)-3,13-ODDA] and the binary blend [96:4 (Z,Z)-3,13-ODDA:(E,Z)-2,13-ODDA] captured significantly more male dogwood borers than traps baited with the best commercial lure. Although the trinary blend captured the most males, there was no significant difference in captures with the binary blend at all six field sites. Chemical analysis revealed that the commercial lure contained 91.5% (Z,Z)-3,13-ODDA, 7.3% (Z,E)-3,13-ODDA, and 1.2% (E,Z)-3,13-ODDA, a potent behavioral antagonist of dogwood borer. Species specificity of the trinary and binary blends was very high; >97% of all moths captured were dogwood borer compared with 6–74.4% for the commercial lure. Male dogwood borer showed a concentration-dependent response to traps baited with different source concentrations of the trinary blend at all locations and of the binary blend at most locations. Between 4 and 113 times more male dogwood borers were captured in traps baited with the trinary blend within commercial orchards than within adjacent woodland habitats.}, number={2}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Leskey, TC and Bergh, JC and Walgenbach, JF and Zhang, AJ}, year={2006}, month={Apr}, pages={268–275} }
 @article{kovanci_schal_walgenbach_kennedy_2006, title={Effects of pheromone loading, dispenser age, and trap height on pheromone trap catches of the Oriental fruit moth in apple orchards}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1876-7184"]}, DOI={10.1007/BF02980952}, number={3}, journal={PHYTOPARASITICA}, author={Kovanci, Orkun B. and Schal, Coby and Walgenbach, James F. and Kennedy, George G.}, year={2006}, month={Jun}, pages={252–260} }
 @article{borchert_walgenbach_kennedy_2005, title={Assessment of sublethal effects of methoxyfenozide on oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae)}, volume={98}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-98.3.765}, abstractNote={Abstract Sublethal effects of the insect growth regulator methoxyfenozide were examined in oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in laboratory and field studies. In laboratory studies, oriental fruit moth larvae reared on diet amended with 0.1 ppm methoxyfenozide developed at the same rate as larvae reared on untreated diet, and paired moths reared as larvae from the same treated or untreated diets exhibited similar fecundity and fertility. Population growth differences over multiple generations were used to examine sublethal effects of methoxyfenozide on population dynamics in the field. Multiple single-tree cages were placed over apple (Malus spp.) trees treated with two applications of methoxyfenozide (70 g [AI]/ha) and nontreated trees. Cages were infested at a single time point with virgin male and female oriental fruit moth adults, and population growth was evaluated by egg counts, shoot infestation, fruit damage, and larval counts over a 12-wk period. Significantly fewer eggs, larvae, and damaged fruit were found on methoxyfenozide-treated compared with nontreated trees in 2001. Observed population differences may have been a result of direct mortality to eggs and larvae of the first generation rather than sublethal effects. In 2002, no differences were observed between treatments, but a heavy rain event shortly after the early infestation impacted the experiment. A late moth release treatment was tested in 2002 to examine the effects of residual methoxyfenozide 55 d after initial application. Significantly fewer eggs were found in the methoxyfenozide treatment compared with the control, but no differences existed among treatments in shoot infestation, percentage of damaged fruit, or larval populations. It was concluded direct mortality of eggs and larvae exposed to methoxyfenozide rather than sublethal effects were most important in reduction of subsequent generations.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Borchert, DM and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG}, year={2005}, month={Jun}, pages={765–771} }
 @article{kovanci_schal_walgenbach_kennedy_2005, title={Comparison of Mating Disruption with Pesticides for Management of Oriental Fruit Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in North Carolina Apple Orchards}, volume={98}, ISSN={0022-0493 0022-0493}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-98.4.1248}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-98.4.1248}, abstractNote={Abstract The efficacy of mating disruption by using Isomate-M 100 pheromone dispensers and two formulations of microencapsulated sprayable pheromone for management of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), was compared with conventional insecticides in large plot studies in Henderson County, North Carolina, in 2000 and 2001. In addition, experiments were conducted in small and large plots to test the response of oriental fruit moth males to different application rates of sprayable pheromone. Pheromone trap catches were significantly reduced in mating disruption blocks compared with conventional and abandoned orchards. Pheromone traps placed in the upper canopy captured significantly more moths than traps placed in the lower canopy across all treatments, and lures loaded with 100 μg of pheromone caught more moths than traps with 300 μg, but the difference between doses was statistically significant at only one location in 2001. Isomate-M 100 provided excellent trap shutdown and was significantly more effective than sprayable pheromone formulations. Fruit damage by oriental fruit moth larvae was very low (≤1%) in mating disruption blocks and was generally lower than in conventional and nonmanaged blocks. Based on male moth response to pheromone traps in small plots, there was little difference among doses of sprayable pheromone, ranging from 12.4 to 49.1 g (AI)/ha, but efficacy declined at 2.4 g (AI)/ha. With the exception of one orchard, there was no significant difference between 12.4 and 37.1 g (AI)/ha under low and high oriental fruit moth population pressure in large plot studies. Mating disruption proved to be an alternative to organophosphate insecticides for managing oriental fruit moth populations in North Carolina apple orchards.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Economic Entomology}, publisher={Oxford University Press (OUP)}, author={Kovanci, Orkun B. and Schal, Coby and Walgenbach, James F. and Kennedy, George G.}, year={2005}, month={Aug}, pages={1248–1258} }
 @article{villanueva_walgenbach_2005, title={Development, oviposition, and mortality of Neoseiulus fallacis (Acari : Phytoseiidae) in response to reduced-risk insecticides}, volume={98}, ISSN={["0022-0493"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-98.6.2114}, abstractNote={Abstract Eight reduced-risk insecticides (acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, thiacloprid, methoxyfenozide, pyriproxyfen, indoxacarb, and spinosad) and three conventional insecticides (azinphosmethyl, fenpropathrin, and esfenvalerate) were tested against Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman) (Acari: Phytoseiidae), the most abundant predacious mite in North Carolina apple (Malus spp.) orchards. To assess the effect of insecticides on development and mortality of N. fallacis immatures, 12-h-old eggs were individually placed on bean leaf disks previously dipped in insecticide solutions. Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) females were added as a food source. None of the reduced-risk insecticides significantly affected immature N. fallacis compared with the control; however, the pyrethroids esfenvalerate and fenpropathrin were highly toxic to immatures. To evaluate the effect of insecticides on mortality and oviposition of adult N. fallacis, 7- to 8-d-old females were confined on insecticide-treated bean leaves with Malephora crocea (Aizoaceae) pollen added as a food source. Spinosad resulted in the highest mortality, whereas azinphosmethyl, acetamiprid, fenpropathrin, and imidacloprid were moderately toxic, and mortality from esfenvalerate, indoxacarb, thiacloprid, methoxyfenozide, pyriproxyfen, and thiamethoxam did not differ significantly from the control. Oviposition was affected in a similar manner, with the exception of acetamiprid that did not affect oviposition, and thiamethoxam that reduced oviposition.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Villanueva, RT and Walgenbach, JF}, year={2005}, month={Dec}, pages={2114–2120} }
 @article{kovanci_walgenbach_kennedy_schal_2005, title={Effects of application rate and interval on the efficacy of sprayable pheromone for mating disruption of the oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1876-7184"]}, DOI={10.1007/BF02981299}, number={4}, journal={PHYTOPARASITICA}, author={Kovanci, OB and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG and Schal, C}, year={2005}, month={Aug}, pages={334–342} }
 @article{sorenson_kennedy_schal_walgenbach_2005, title={Geographical variation in pheromone response of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera : Crambidae), in North Carolina: A 20-Y perspective}, volume={34}, ISSN={["0046-225X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0046-225X(2005)034[1057:GVIPRO]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Pheromone traps were used to assess the distribution of two pheromone races of European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), in North Carolina, ≈10 and 20 yr after previous, similar assessments. In the previous studies, moths responding to a 97Z: 3E isomeric blend (Z blend) of 11-tetradecenyl acetate predominated in the far western parts of the state, whereas moths responding to a 3Z: 97E blend (E blend) prevailed in the east, with a substantial zone of overlap occurring in the eastern Piedmont. There was evidence that the E responsive population had expanded westward between 1978 and 1988. In this study, the distribution of the two races seemed to remain essentially unchanged from that observed in the late 1980s, and no evidence of a continued westward expansion of E responsive moths was detected.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Sorenson, CE and Kennedy, GG and Schal, C and Walgenbach, JF}, year={2005}, month={Oct}, pages={1057–1062} }
 @article{kovanci_walgenbach_2005, title={Monitoring the Oriental Fruit Moth with pheromone and bait traps in apple orchards under different management regimes}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1366-5863"]}, DOI={10.1080/09670870500270661}, abstractNote={Abstract A completely randomized experimental design was used to evaluate the performance of pheromone and terpinyl acetate bait traps in the monitoring of Oriental Fruit Moth in apple orchards under different management regimes. Pheromone traps detected three peaks in male moth catches corresponding to the first, second, and overlapping third plus fourth generation adults, respectively. However, two separate peaks of overlapping generations were evident in bait traps owing to their ability to catch both sexes, predominantly mated females. Trap catches and fruit damage were significantly reduced both in mating disruption blocks with an early insecticide application and insecticide treatments alone, compared with abandoned blocks. Cumulative moth catch in pheromone traps during late-season flight was a better predictor of fruit damage than catch in bait traps.}, number={4}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEST MANAGEMENT}, author={Kovanci, OB and Walgenbach, JF}, year={2005}, pages={273–279} }
 @article{zhang_leskey_bergh_walgenbach_2005, title={Sex pheromone of the dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula}, volume={31}, ISSN={["1573-1561"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10886-005-7113-0}, abstractNote={The sex pheromone of female dogwood borers (DWB) Synanthedon scitula (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) was determined to be an 88:6:6 ternary blend of (Z,Z)-3,13-octadecadienyl acetate (Z,Z-3,13-ODDA), (E,Z)-2,13-octadecadienyl acetate (E,Z-2,13-ODDA), and (Z,E)-3,13-octadecadienyl acetate (Z,E-3,13-ODDA) by gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The major sex pheromone component, Z,Z-3,13-ODDA, was attractive as a single component. A blend of Z,Z-3,13-ODDA with 1-3% of E,Z-2,13-ODDA (binary blend) was more attractive than the single component. A third component, Z,E-3,13-ODDA, was sometimes observed in GC-EAD analyses, and enhanced attraction to the binary blend in some field bioassays. Lures containing 1 mg of binary and ternary blends attracted 18 and 28 times more male DWB moths, respectively, than caged virgin females in field trials. Attraction was strongly antagonized by addition of as little as 0.5% of E,Z-3,13-octadecadienyl acetate (E,Z-3,13-ODDA). In a period of 12 wk in 2004, more than 60,000 males were captured in sticky traps baited with synthetic pheromone blends in six apple orchards in Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina. Lure longevity trials showed that approximately 76% of the pheromone remained in rubber septum lures after 12 wk in the field.}, number={10}, journal={JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ECOLOGY}, author={Zhang, AJ and Leskey, TC and Bergh, JC and Walgenbach, JF}, year={2005}, month={Oct}, pages={2463–2479} }
 @article{kahn_walgenbach_kennedy_2005, title={Summer weeds as hosts for Frankliniella occidentalis and Frankliniella fusca (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and as reservoirs for tomato spotted wilt tospovirus in North Carolina}, volume={98}, DOI={10.1093/jee/98.6.1810}, abstractNote={In North Carolina, Tomato spotted wilt tospovirus (family Bunyaviridae, genus Tospovirus, TSWV) is vectored primarily by the tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca (Hinds), and the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). TSWV overwinters in winter annual weeds from which it is spread to susceptible crops in spring. Because most susceptible crops are destroyed after harvest before winter weeds emerge in the fall, infected summer weeds are thought to be the principal source for spread of TSWV to winter annual weeds in fall. A survey of summer weeds associated with TSWV-susceptible crops in the coastal plain of North Carolina conducted between May and October revealed that relatively few species were commonly infected with TSWV and supported populations of F. fusca or F. occidentalis. F. occidentalis made up > 75% of vector species collected from 15 summer weed species during 2002. The number of F. occidentalis and F. fusca immatures collected from plant samples varied significantly among plant species. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth, Mollugo verticillata L., Cassia obtusifolia L., and Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats supported the largest numbers of immature F. occidentalis. Richardia scabra L., M. verticillata, and Ipomoea hederacea (L.) supported the largest numbers of F. fusca immatures. TSWV was present at 16 of 17 locations, and naturally occurring infections were found in 14 of 29 weed species tested. Five of the TSWV-infected species have not previously been reported as hosts of TSWV (A. palmeri, Solidago altissima L., Ipomoea lacunosa L., I. purpurea, and Phytolacca americana L.). Estimated rates of infection were highest in I. purpurea (6.8%), M. verticillata (5.3%), and I. hederacea (1.9%). When both the incidence of infection by TSWV and the populations of F. occidentalis and F. fusca associated with each weed species are considered, the following summer weed species have the potential to act as significant sources for spread of TSWV to winter annual weeds in fall: I. purpurea, I. hederacea, M. verticillata, A. palmeri, C. obtusifolia, R. scabra, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., Polygonum pensylvanicum L., and Chenopodium album L.}, number={6}, journal={Journal of Economic Entomology}, author={Kahn, N. D. and Walgenbach, T. F. and Kennedy, George}, year={2005}, pages={1810–1815} }
 @article{kovanci_walgenbach_kennedy_borchert_2004, title={Evaluation of extended-season mating disruption of the Oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lep., Tortricidae) in apples}, volume={128}, ISSN={["1439-0418"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1439-0418.2004.00906.x}, abstractNote={Abstract:  Oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lep., Tortricidae) has recently become a key pest of apples throughout the eastern USA. Pheromone‐mediated mating disruption of Oriental fruit moth was successfully used in North Carolina apple orchards in the past few years. However, low levels of late‐season fruit damage occurred in some orchards treated in late May with hand‐applied pheromone dispensers because of inadequate dispenser longevity. To investigate alternative pheromone application schedules for extended mating disruption control, the following pheromone treatments were compared with conventional insecticides in Henderson County (NC) in 2002: late May application of hand‐applied dispensers; late June application of hand‐applied dispensers; late May application of hand‐applied dispensers supplemented with a late August application of sprayable pheromone dispensers; late May application of hand‐applied dispensers which have a longer activity period; and conventional insecticides as a control. All treatments were sprayed with an insecticide at petal fall in late April for thinning and for control of the first generation Oriental fruit moth adults. Pheromone trap catches were significantly reduced in all mating disruption blocks compared with conventional insecticide blocks. Among pheromone treatments, the highest trap captures were recorded in the delayed hand‐applied dispenser treatment in June before treatment. However, the mean percentage fruit damage did not vary with timing of application of hand‐applied dispensers and the type of pheromone dispenser used. Clearly, the combination of each mating disruption treatment with insecticide application against first generation Oriental fruit moth was as effective as the conventional insecticide treatment under moderate population pressure.}, number={9-10}, journal={JOURNAL OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Kovanci, OB and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG and Borchert, D}, year={2004}, month={Dec}, pages={664–669} }
 @article{borchert_stinner_walgenbach_kennedy_2004, title={Oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) phenology and management with methoxyfenozide in North Carolina apples}, volume={97}, DOI={10.1093/jee/97.4.1353}, abstractNote={The phenology of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), on apple (Malus spp.) in North Carolina was studied using pheromone traps and egg sampling in abandoned and commercial orchards in 2000 and 2001, with subsequent development of an oviposition degree-day model and management studies in relation to codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), phenology. Oriental fruit moth eggs were found in greater numbers on leaves early and on fruit later in the growing season, on the top versus the bottom of the leaf surface, and on the calyx area versus the side or stem end of the fruit. A degree-day (DD) model to predict oriental fruit moth oviposition was developed based on temperature accumulations from peak moth trap capture of the first (overwintering) generation, by using 7.2 and 32.2 degrees C as the temperature limits. The model predicted four ovipositing generations of oriental fruit moth with the second beginning 507 DD after peak moth catch. Using predictions of the oriental fruit moth and codling moth degree-day oviposition models, an experiment was conducted to determine the level of second generation oriental fruit moth control with methoxyfenozide applied under different scenarios for first generation codling moth. Methoxyfenozide was equally effective in managing codling moth and oriental fruit moth for all treatment timings.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Economic Entomology}, author={Borchert, D. M. and Stinner, R. E. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Kennedy, George}, year={2004}, pages={1353–1364} }
 @article{borchert_walgenbach_kennedy_long_2004, title={Toxicity and residual activity of methoxyfenozide and tebufenozide to codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)}, volume={97}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-97.4.1342}, abstractNote={Abstract A series of studies were conducted to examine the residual activity and toxicity of the ecdysone agonists tebufenozide and methoxyfenozide to codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in North Carolina apple systems. Methoxyfenozide exhibited greater activity than tebufenozide against codling moth eggs in dose-response bioassays, with a 4.5- and 5.3-fold lower LC50 value to eggs laid on fruit treated before or after oviposition, respectively. Oriental fruit moth eggs were 57- and 12-fold less sensitive to methoxyfenozide than were codling moth eggs on fruit treated before and after oviposition, respectively. Methoxyfenozide was effective in reducing larval entries of both codling moth and oriental fruit moth in field residual activity bioassays, exhibiting activity for at least 28 d after application. Residue breakdown on fruit was ≈80% at 28 d after treatment for both methoxyfenozide and tebufenozide, with the most rapid residue decline (60%) occurring during the first 14 d after application. Two applications of methoxyfenozide applied at 14-d intervals provided better canopy coverage and higher residue levels than one application. Spray volume (683 versus 2,057 liters/ha) did not affect the efficacy of methoxyfenozide. Leaf and fruit expansion during the season was measured to determine potential plant-growth dilution effects on residual activity. There was very little increase in leaf area after mid May, but increase in fruit surface area over the season was described by a second order polynomial regression. Implications for codling moth and oriental fruit moth management programs are discussed.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Economic Entomology}, author={Borchert, D. M. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Kennedy, George and Long, J. W.}, year={2004}, pages={1342–1352} }
 @article{groves_walgenbach_moyer_kennedy_2003, title={Seasonal dispersal patterns of Frankliniella fusca (Thysanoptera : Thripidae) and tomato spotted wilt virus occurrence in central and eastern North Carolina}, volume={96}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-96.1.1}, abstractNote={Abstract The seasonal abundance and temporal pattern of Frankliniella fusca Hinds dispersal were monitored from 1996 to 2000 at 12 locations in central and eastern North Carolina. The predominant vector species of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) captured across all locations was F. fusca (98%). The temporal patterns of F. fusca dispersal observed during spring seasons varied among locations in all years except 2000. Regression analysis estimated that times of first flight in the spring seasons varied among locations, whereas flight duration intervals were similar. Temporal patterns of F. fusca captured varied significantly between aerial traps placed 0.1 and 1.0 m above the soil surface. Fewer total thrips were captured at 0.1 m, although thrips dispersal occurred earlier and over a greater time interval compared with 1.0-m traps. Temporal patterns of TSWV occurrence differed among locations in the spring seasons of 1999 and 2000, whereas patterns of virus occurrence were similar during the fall seasons. Patterns of F. fusca dispersal and subsequent TSWV occurrence were synchronous at locations in 1999 and 2000 where the greatest number of TSWV lesions was recorded. Knowledge of the temporal patterns of F. fusca dispersal and TSWV occurrence may be a useful indicator for describing the time when susceptible crops are at highest risk of TSWV infection.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Groves, RL and Walgenbach, JF and Moyer, JW and Kennedy, GG}, year={2003}, month={Feb}, pages={1–11} }
 @article{hummel_walgenbach_barbercheck_kennedy_hoyt_arellano_2002, title={Effects of production practices on soil-borne entomopathogens in western North Carolina vegetable systems}, volume={31}, ISSN={["0046-225X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0046-225X-31.1.84}, abstractNote={Abstract Populations of endemic soil entomopathogens (nematodes and fungi) were monitored in vegetable production systems incorporating varying degrees of sustainable practices in Fletcher, NC. Two tillage types (conventional plow and disk versus conservation tillage), two input approaches (chemically versus biologically based), and two cropping schedules (continuous tomato versus 3-yr rotation of corn, cucumber, cabbage, and tomato) were employed in large plots from 1995 to 1998. A Galleria mellonella (L.) trap bioassay was used to identify and monitor activity of Steinernema carpocapsae, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium anisopliae populations during the vegetable growing season (April–September). Seasonal detection of entomopathogens was significantly higher in conservation compared with conventional tillage systems. The strip-till operation did not affect levels of detection of S. carpocapsae. Pesticide use significantly reduced detection of entomopathogenic fungi. Type of ground cover significantly affected temperature in the upper 12 cm of soil; highest soil temperatures were observed under black plastic mulch and bare ground, whereas lowest temperatures were observed under rye mulch and clover intercrop. The high soil temperatures associated with certain ground covers may have reduced entomopathogen detection or survival. Although type of tillage appeared to be the primary factor affecting survival of endemic soil entomopathogens in our system, other factors, such as pesticide use and type of ground cover, can negate the positive effects of strip-tillage.}, number={1}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Hummel, RL and Walgenbach, JF and Barbercheck, ME and Kennedy, GG and Hoyt, GD and Arellano, C}, year={2002}, month={Feb}, pages={84–91} }
 @article{hummel_walgenbach_hoyt_kennedy_2002, title={Effects of production system on vegetable arthropods and their natural enemies}, volume={93}, ISSN={["0167-8809"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00345-0}, abstractNote={Populations of foliar insect pests and natural enemies were monitored in vegetable production systems incorporating varying degrees of sustainable practices in Fletcher, NC, USA. Two types of tillage (conventional plow and disk, strip-tillage), two input approaches (chemically-based, biologically-based) and two cropping schedules (continuous tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), 3-year rotation of corn (Zea mays L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and tomato) were employed from 1995 to 1998. Tomato pest pressure was relatively low in all years, resulting in a limited impact of production systems on potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae), and its associated parasitoids and predators. Thrips (Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera)) populations were significantly higher in the biological input treatments in 3 of 4 years. Lepidopterous (primarily Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)) damage on tomato was significantly higher in biological treatments in all years, damage by thrips and pentatomids (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) increasing each year in the continuous tomato crop schedule. Most insect populations were significantly influenced by type of insecticide input or ground cover. Few population measurements were affected by tillage type. Foliar insect problems in commercial vegetable production may be associated predominantly with insecticide input (i.e. more damage with biologically based insecticides) and use of intercropping (i.e. more damage in systems with living mulch); however, the long term effects of tillage and crop rotation remain to be seen.}, number={1-3}, journal={AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Hummel, RL and Walgenbach, JF and Hoyt, GD and Kennedy, GG}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={165–176} }
 @article{hummel_walgenbach_hoyt_kennedy_2002, title={Effects of vegetable production system on epigeal arthropod populations}, volume={93}, ISSN={["0167-8809"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00346-2}, abstractNote={Populations of epigeal arthropods were monitored in vegetable production systems under varying degrees of sustainable agricultural practices in Fletcher, NC (USA). Two tillage types (conventional plow and disk, strip-tillage (ST)), two input approaches (chemically based, biologically based) and two cropping schedules (continuous tomato Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.], 3-year rotation of sweet corn [Zea mays L.]/cabbage [Brassica oleracea L.], cucumber [Cucumis sativus L.]/cabbage and tomato) were employed from 1995–1998. A second study with tomatoes was performed in 1997–1998 to separate effects of pesticide use, intercropping and herbicide application. Pitfall traps (48-h sample period) were used at ∼25-day intervals to monitor relative activity of carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae), staphylinid (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) beetles and lycosid spiders (Araneidae: Lycosidae). Carabids and lycosids appeared to be more active in systems with ground cover. Trap catches of carabid species were not significantly affected by insecticide input, but trap catches of lycosids were lower in plots with conventional insecticide use. No consistent effect of tillage was found over time, although Scarites spp. were more active in minimally disturbed habitats in 1998. Two distinct patterns of seasonal activity were observed for carabid beetles and lycosid spiders. Ground cover generally enhanced abundance of carabids and lycosids, while tillage type, pesticide use and crop rotation had different effects.}, number={1-3}, journal={AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Hummel, RL and Walgenbach, JF and Hoyt, GD and Kennedy, GG}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={177–188} }
 @article{groves_walgenbach_moyer_kennedy_2002, title={The role of weed hosts and tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca, in the epidemiology of Tomato spotted wilt virus}, volume={86}, ISSN={["1943-7692"]}, DOI={10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.6.573}, abstractNote={ Wild plant species were systematically sampled to characterize reproduction of thrips, the vector of Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), and natural sources TSWV infection. Thrips populations were monitored on 28 common perennial, biennial, and annual plant species over two noncrop seasons at six field locations across North Carolina. Sonchus asper, Stellaria media, and Taraxacum officianale consistently supported the largest populations of immature TSWV vector species. The tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca, was the most abundant TSWV vector species collected, comprising over 95% of vector species in each survey season. Perennial plant species (i.e., Plantago rugelii and Taraxacum officianale) were often only locally abundant, and many annual species (Cerastium vulgatum, Sonchus asper, and Stellaria media) were more widely distributed. Perennial species, including P. rugelii and Rumex crispus, remained TSWV infected for 2 years in a small-plot field test. Where these perennial species are locally abundant, they may serve as important and long-lasting TSWV inoculum sources. In random surveys across 12 locations in North Carolina, TSWV infection was documented by double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 35 of 72 (49%) common perennial (N = 10), biennial (N = 4), and annual (N = 21) plant species across 18 plant families. Estimated rates of TSWV infection were highest in Cerastium vulgatum (4.2%), Lactuca scariola (1.3%), Molluga verticillata (4.3%), Plantago rugelii (3.4%), Ranunculus sardous (3.6%), Sonchus asper (5.1%), Stellaria media (1.4%), and Taraxacum officianale (5.8%). Nine plant species were determined to be new host recordings for TSWV infection, including Cardamine hirsuta, Eupatorium capillifolium, Geranium carolinianum, Gnaphalium purpureum, Linaria canadense, Molluga verticillata, Pyrrhopappus carolinianus, Raphanus raphanistrum, and Triodanis perfoliata. Our findings document the relative potential of a number of common annual, biennial, and perennial plant species to act as important reproductive sites for F. fusca and as acquisition sources of TSWV for spread to susceptible crops. }, number={6}, journal={PLANT DISEASE}, author={Groves, RL and Walgenbach, JF and Moyer, JW and Kennedy, GG}, year={2002}, month={Jun}, pages={573–582} }
 @article{groves_sorenson_walgenbach_kennedy_2001, title={Effects of imidacloprid on transmission of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus to pepper, tomato and tobacco by Frankliniella fusca Hinds (Thysanoptera : Thripidae)}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0261-2194"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0261-2194(00)00171-X}, abstractNote={Abstract Rates of transmission of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus (TSWV) by tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca Hinds, to imidacloprid-treated and untreated tomato, pepper and tobacco were measured in greenhouse and small-plot field trials. The incidence of TSWV was reduced in greenhouse assays with all 3 crops receiving a soil application of imidacloprid at a rate of 9.9 g [AI]/1000 plants. Levels of TSWV were also reduced in small-plot field trials of tomato and pepper plants receiving transplant applications of imidacloprid at the same rate. No F. fusca were recovered from imidacloprid-treated tobacco (9.9 g [AI]/1000 plants) 24 days following an initial infestation. In the greenhouse, F. fusca populations reached higher levels on healthy than TSWV-infected tobacco. Applications of soil-applied imidacloprid reduced the number and duration of probing/feeding bouts by F. fusca on pepper and mustard (Brassica rapa L.). Reduced probing and feeding by viruliferous thrips on imidacloprid-treated plants may contribute to less TSWV incidence as observed in the field and greenhouse experiments.}, number={5}, journal={CROP PROTECTION}, author={Groves, RL and Sorenson, CE and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG}, year={2001}, month={Jun}, pages={439–445} }
 @article{meissner_walgenbach_kennedy_2001, title={Effects of mating disruption and conventional pesticide treatments on populations of the tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idaeusalis, in North Carolina apple orchards}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0261-2194"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0261-2194(00)00140-X}, abstractNote={Trials were conducted during four consecutive summers (1995–1998) in North Carolina apple orchards to compare the effects of mating disruption and conventional pesticide treatments on tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idaeusalis, populations with regard to number of males caught in pheromone traps, number of egg masses, number of leaf shelters, and feeding damage. Pheromone traps caught significantly fewer males in mating disruption than in non-disruption plots. For the first generation, the number of tufted apple bud moth egg masses was higher in the conventional treatment, but in the second-generation egg mass numbers did not differ among treatments. Neither the number of TABM leaf shelters found per hour, nor the percentage of fruit with TABM feeding damage was significantly different among treatments. However, when TABM populations were high, damage was generally greater in mating disruption plots. Because this insect is usually not of economic concern until populations reach high densities, this insect appears to be less amenable to control with mating disruption compared to other tortricids.}, number={5}, journal={CROP PROTECTION}, author={Meissner, HE and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG}, year={2001}, month={Jun}, pages={373–378} }
 @article{groves_walgenbach_moyer_kennedy_2001, title={Overwintering of Frankliniella fusca (Thysanoptera : Thripidae) on winter annual weeds infected with Tomato spotted wilt virus and patterns of virus movement between susceptible weed hosts}, volume={91}, ISSN={["1943-7684"]}, DOI={10.1094/PHYTO.2001.91.9.891}, abstractNote={Overwintering of tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca, was investigated on common winter annual host plants infected with Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). Populations of tobacco thrips produced on TSWV-infected plants did not differ from those produced on healthy plants, whereas populations varied greatly among host plant species. The mean per plant populations of F. fusca averaged 401, 162, and 10 thrips per plant on Stellaria media, Scleranthus annuus, and Sonchus asper, respectively, during peak abundance in May. Adult F. fusca collected from plant hosts were predominately brachypterous throughout the winter and early spring, but macropterous forms predominated in late spring. Weed hosts varied in their ability to serve as overwintering sources of TSWV inoculum. Following the initial infection by TSWV in October 1997, 75% of Scleranthus annuus and Stellaria media retained infection over the winter and spring season, whereas only 17% of Sonchus asper plants remained infected throughout the same interval. Mortality of TSWV-infected Sonchus asper plants exceeded 25%, but mortality of infected Stellaria media and Scleranthus annuus did not exceed 8%. TSWV transmission by thrips produced on infected plants was greatest on Stellaria media (18%), intermediate on Scleranthus annuus (6%), and lowest on Sonchus asper (2%). Very few viruliferous F. fusca were recovered from soil samples collected below infected wild host plants. Vegetative growth stages of Stellaria media, Sonchus asper, and Ranunculus sardous were more susceptible to F. fusca transmission of TSWV than flowering growth stages, whereas both growth stages of Scleranthus annuus were equally susceptible. In a field study to monitor the spatial and temporal patterns of virus movement from a central source of TSWV-infected Stellaria media to adjacent plots of R. sardous, the incidence of infection in R. sardous plots increased from <1% in March to >42% in June 1999. Infection levels in the Stellaria media inoculum source remained high throughout the experiment, averaging nearly 80% until June 1999 when all Stellaria media plants had senesced. Dispersal of TSWV from the inoculum source extended to the limits of the experimental plot (>37 m). Significant directional patterns of TSWV spread to the R. sardous plots were detected in April and May but not in June. R. sardous infections were detected as early as March and April, suggesting that overwintering inoculum levels in an area can increase rapidly during the spring in susceptible weed hosts prior to planting of susceptible crops. This increase in the abundance of TSWV inoculum sources occurs at a time when vector populations are increasing rapidly. The spread of TSWV among weeds in the spring serves to bridge the period when overwintered inoculum sources decline and susceptible crops are planted.}, number={9}, journal={PHYTOPATHOLOGY}, author={Groves, RL and Walgenbach, JF and Moyer, JW and Kennedy, GG}, year={2001}, month={Sep}, pages={891–899} }
 @article{meissner_atterholt_walgenbach_kennedy_2000, title={Comparison of pheromone application rates, point source densities, and dispensing methods for mating disruption of tufted apple bud moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae)}, volume={93}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-93.3.820}, abstractNote={Abstract Small-plot (≈0.1 ha) studies were used to evaluate different pheromone dispensing systems, application rates, and point-source densities for mating disruption of the tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idaeusalis (Walker). Using polyvinyl chloride spirals impregnated with tufted apple bud moth pheromone (1:1 ratio of E11-tetradecenyl alcohol/E11-tetradecenyl acetate), pheromone rates of ≥1,482 spirals per hectare (74.1 g pheromone per hectare) were superior to a rate of 988 spirals per hectare (49.4 g pheromone per hectare) in decreasing male response to pheromone traps in 1995, whereas no differences were detected among rates of 988, 1,482 and 1,975 spirals per hectare in 1996. Within a range of 370–988 pheromone dispensers per hectare, point source densities were equally effective in suppressing male response to pheromone traps. Pheromone-impregnated paraffin disks were equally effective at inhibiting male response to pheromone traps compared with polyvinyl chloride spirals. However, a paraffin emulsion formulation of pheromone applied with a hand-held grease gun provided longer residual communication disruption effects than polyvinyl chloride spirals. Dilution of paraffin emulsion pheromone formulations in water for application with a backpack sprayer and airblast sprayer rendered them ineffective in reducing male response to pheromone traps. The releases of pheromone from polyvinyl chloride spirals and paraffin disks aged in the field were described by a linear and negative logarithmic curve, respectively, indicating that dispenser life time should be longer for spirals. The ratio of acetate to alcohol components of pheromone released from spirals increased over time, whereas the release ratio remained more constant for paraffin disks. This suggests that the disruption efficacy of spirals may be prematurely reduced because of imbalance of the released components.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Meissner, HE and Atterholt, CA and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG}, year={2000}, month={Jun}, pages={820–827} }
 @article{borchert_walgenbach_2000, title={Comparison of pheromone-mediated mating disruption and conventional insecticides for management of tufted apple bud moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae)}, volume={93}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1603/0022-0493-93.3.769}, abstractNote={Abstract Large-plot studies were used to compare pheromone-mediated mating disruption and conventional insecticide applications for management of tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idaeusalis (Walker), in North Carolina in 1993 and 1994. Pheromone trap catches were reduced in mating disruption blocks, and traps placed in the lower stratum of the canopy had a higher level of trap capture reduction compared with traps placed in the upper stratum. First-generation tufted apple bud moth exposure to either pheromones for mating disruption or insecticides affected second generation pheromone trap catches in the lower and upper canopy. More second generation male moths were caught in pheromone traps placed in the upper compared with the lower canopy in blocks treated with pheromones for mating disruption during the first generation, whereas the opposite was true in blocks treated with insecticides during the first generation. Despite reduced trap catches in pheromone-treated blocks, egg mass densities were not reduced in these blocks compared with insecticide-treated blocks. Furthermore, fruit damage was not significantly different between mating disruption blocks and conventionally treated blocks in orchards with relatively low populations of tufted apple bud moth, but damage was greater in mating disruption blocks in orchards with higher moth densities.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={Borchert, DM and Walgenbach, JF}, year={2000}, month={Jun}, pages={769–776} }
 @article{cho_walgenbach_kennedy_2000, title={Daily and temporal occurrence of Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera : Thripidae) on tomato}, volume={35}, ISSN={["1347-605X"]}, DOI={10.1303/aez.2000.207}, abstractNote={Daily occurrence and flight activity of Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in tomato fields was studied on five dates in 1990 and four dates in 1992. Higher number of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) were observed on tomato flowers in the morning than in the afternoon on 3 of 5 and 2 of 4 sample dates in 1990 and 1992, respectively. Numbers of Frankliniella tritici (Fitch), Frankliniella fusca (Hinds) and immature thrips on flowers or foliage did not differ among sample hours. On tomato foliage, F. fusca and immature thrips were dominant, while few F. occidentalis or F. tritici were collected. Temperature was an important factor in the flight activity of F. tritici. Populations of F. tritici peaked earlier in the season and declined sooner than those of F. occidentalis. F. occidentalis and F. tritici both inhabited tomato flowers and subdivided this niche temporally, while F. fusca occupied a different niche, tomato foliage.}, number={2}, journal={APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY}, author={Cho, K and Walgenbach, JF and Kennedy, GG}, year={2000}, month={May}, pages={207–214} }
 @article{fulcher_ranney_burton_walgenbach_danehower_1998, title={Natural resistance of Malus to adult Japanese beetles}, volume={188}, number={10}, journal={American Nurseryman}, author={Fulcher, A. F. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Danehower, D. A.}, year={1998}, pages={56–57} }
 @article{patton_ranney_burton_walgenbach_1998, title={Natural resistance of Prunus to adult Japanese beetles}, volume={187}, number={10}, journal={American Nurseryman}, author={Patton, C. A. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={1998}, pages={70–71} }
 @article{fulcher_ranney_burton_walgenbach_danehower_1998, title={Role of foliar phenolics in host plant resistance of Malus taxa to adult Japanese beetles}, volume={33}, number={5}, journal={HortScience}, author={Fulcher, A. F. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Danehower, D. A.}, year={1998}, pages={862–865} }
 @article{walgenbach_1997, title={Effect of potato aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) on yield, quality, and economics of staked-tomato production}, volume={90}, DOI={10.1093/jee/90.4.996}, abstractNote={Field studies were conducted in 1990 and 1992 to measure the impact of potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas), infestations on the yield, quality, and economics of staked, fresh-market tomato production. Treatments consisted of a nontreated control and applications of the experimental aphicide RH7988 at threshold levels of 10, 25, 50, 65, and 100% infested leaves. Although total yield did not vary significantly among treatments, yields were consistently lower in the control, 65, and 100% threshold treatments. However, fruit quality, as measured by percentage of fruit graded as combination grade (U.S. No. 1 and 2), U.S. No. 3, and culls, was statistically highest in the 10 and 25% threshold treatments in 1990, and the 10, 25, and 50% threshold treatments in 1992. Reductions in fruit quality were related to higher levels of hemipterous-damaged fruit and fruit affected by weather-related physiological disorders (sunscald and weathercheck). The larger aphid populations in the high threshold treatments were presumably attractive to stink bugs and leaffooted bugs, which fed on aphids as well as tomato fruit. The higher levels of sunscald and weathercheck were because of stunted foliage and higher levels of foliar early blight, which decreased leaf area and exposed fruit to these disorders. Reductions in fruit quality were most apparent during the late season harvests. When yields were adjusted for hemipterous damage and physiological disorders, net profits increased and, in 1990, only the control exhibited a significant reduction in net profits compared with the low aphid threshold treatment, indicating that reduction in fruit quality was the primary cause of profit loss in the high threshold treatments. However, in 1992, significant reductions in net profits were observed at thresholds of >50% for both nonadjusted and adjusted yields. Recommended potato aphid threshold levels for vine-ripe harvested tomatoes are 50% infested leaves when using broad-spectrum insecticides, but only 25% when using narrow-spectrum aphicides. The higher threshold when using broad-spectrum insecticides is recommended because damage caused by hemipterous insects would be averted.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Economic Entomology}, author={Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={1997}, pages={996–1004} }
 @article{patton_ranney_burton_walgenbach_1997, title={Feeding responses of Japanese beetles to naturally occurring metabolites found in rosaceous plants}, volume={15}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Environmental Horticulture}, author={Patton, C. A. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={1997}, pages={222–227} }
 @article{patton_ranney_burton_walgenbach_1997, title={Natural pest resistance of Prunus taxa to feeding by adult Japanese beetles: Role of endogenous allelochemicals in host plant resistance}, volume={122}, number={5}, journal={Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science}, author={Patton, C. A. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={1997}, pages={668–672} }
 @article{patton_ranney_burton_walgenbach_1997, title={Naturally occurring pesticides found in cherry trees}, volume={31}, number={6}, journal={Nursery Notes (North Carolina Association of Nurserymen)}, author={Patton, C. A. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={1997}, pages={83} }
 @article{fulcher_ranney_burton_walgenbach_danehower_1997, title={The role of endogenous phenolics in host plant resistance among Malus taxa to Japanese beetles}, volume={42}, number={1997}, journal={Proceedings of Southern Nurserymen's Association Research Conference Annual Report}, author={Fulcher, A. F. and Ranney, T. G. and Burton, J. D. and Walgenbach, J. F. and Danehower, D. A.}, year={1997}, pages={68–70} }
 @article{walgenbach_1994, title={DISTRIBUTION OF PARASITIZED AND NONPARASITIZED POTATO APHID (HOMOPTERA, APHIDIDAE) ON STAKE TOMATO}, volume={23}, ISSN={["0046-225X"]}, DOI={10.1093/ee/23.4.795}, abstractNote={The distribution patterns of parasitized and nonparasitized potato aphids, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas), were assessed on four plantings of staked tomatoes from 1988 to 1990. Within plant distribution of nonparasitized aphids changed through the season, with the highest percentage of aphids found on the middle plant stratum during the first ≈60 d and on the upper stratum after this time. Aphid parasitism was inversely density dependent (i.e., rates of parasitism were highest on plantings with low overall potato aphid populations). In addition, parasitism varied within plants, with higher parasitism rates in the middle compared with the upper plant strata. Taylor's power law described an aggregated distribution pattern for both nonparasitized and parasitized aphids, regardless of leaf sample site used for analysis. Analysis of covariance for homogeneity of slopes indicated that the index of aggregation ( b ) from Taylor's power law remained consistent among years and among sample leaves. The third most recently expanded leaf from the uppermost of the plant (leaf T3) provided the highest relative level of precision among all single-leaf sample units for mean estimates at low aphid densities and was similar in precision to a sample unit consisting of the three uppermost leaves. A binomial sampling plan is presented that uses leaf T3 as a sample unit.}, number={4}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={WALGENBACH, JF}, year={1994}, month={Aug}, pages={795–804} }
 @article{walgenbach_eckenrode_straub_1993, title={EMERGENCE PATTERNS OF DELIA-RADICUM (DIPTERA, ANTHOMYIIDAE) POPULATIONS FROM NORTH-CAROLINA AND NEW-YORK}, volume={22}, ISSN={["0046-225X"]}, DOI={10.1093/ee/22.3.559}, abstractNote={Cabbage maggot, Delia radicum (L.), populations from North Carolina (Fletcher and Scaly Mountain) and New York (Geneva and Highland) were surveyed to detect differences in the emergence pattern of flies from overwintered pupae. Populations from all locations consisted of different proportions of early- and later-emerging individuals. However, populations from New York consisted predominately of early-emerging individuals (≥90%), whereas populations from North Carolina were composed of a higher percentage of later-emerging individuals. Emergence patterns of F1 progeny from crosses between early- and later-emerging flies from Scaly Mountain demonstrated that emergence traits were genetically controlled. D. radicum phenology studies in North Carolina suggested that temporal isolation of the two types was halted by an extended period of aestivation during the summer months, which subsequently allowed the two populations to interbreed during the autumn months. The relative proportion of early:late emergers appears to be unstable over time, which may be due to differential mortality factors operating when populations are temporally isolated or due to dominance or recessive factors governing earliness or lateness, or both.}, number={3}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY}, author={WALGENBACH, JF and ECKENRODE, CJ and STRAUB, RW}, year={1993}, month={Jun}, pages={559–566} }
 @article{walgenbach_estes_1992, title={ECONOMICS OF INSECTICIDE USE ON STAKED TOMATOES IN WESTERN NORTH-CAROLINA}, volume={85}, ISSN={["0022-0493"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/85.3.888}, abstractNote={Field studies were conducted in 1988 and 1989 to determine the economic benefits associated with use of various insecticides on fresh-market staked tomatoes in western North Carolina. Tomato fruitworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), was the most important direct insect pest, causing estimated losses of $3,385 and $941/ha in nonsprayed tomatoes in 1988 and 1989, respectively. Indirect damage (i.e., reduction in total yield) due to potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphoribae (Thomas), and tomato fruitworm in 1988 caused additional losses in net profits estimated at $956, $2,186, and $1,687/ha for carbaryl, Bacillus thuringiensis val. Kurstaki , and untreated tomatoes, respectively. The broadspectrum insecticides endosulfan, esfenvalerate, and methomyl were generally more profitable than carbaryl and B. thuringiensis . Under dry weather conditions in 1988, most insecticides were as profitable at 10-d as at 5-d intervals, but under wet conditions in 1989, the shorter-residual insecticides methomyl and B. thuringiensis had higher net profit increases at 5-d opposed to 10-d intervals.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={WALGENBACH, JF and ESTES, EA}, year={1992}, month={Jun}, pages={888–894} }
 @article{walgenbach_leidy_sheets_1991, title={PERSISTENCE OF INSECTICIDES ON TOMATO FOLIAGE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CONTROL OF TOMATO FRUITWORM (LEPIDOPTERA, NOCTUIDAE)}, volume={84}, ISSN={["1938-291X"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/84.3.978}, abstractNote={Insecticides used to control Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) on tomatoes are directed at eggs and small larvae before larvae feed on fruit. Experiments were conducted to determine the persistence of insecticides on tomato foliage and the rate of tomato plant growth, which together were used to interpret field efficacy studies of insecticides for control of H. zea in western North Carolina. The pyrethroid esfenvalerate exhibited the longest persistence of all insecticides studied; the half-life of esfenvalerate on foliage was estimated to be > 10 d, whereas those of carbaryl, methomyl, and endosulfan varied from 65% mortality 14 d after the first application and 91.5% mortality 14 d after the third successive application. Carbaryl and endosulfan resulted in high levelsof larval mortality for 4-8 d after application, but methomyl and Bacillus thuringiensis were toxic for very short periods < 48 h) after application. Plant growth rates were highest from ≈ 2 wk after transplanting until shortly before harvest, indicating that residue loss due to plant growth dilution effects are greatest before harvest begins. Higher levels of H. zea-damaged fruit and potato aphid populations, Macrosiphum euphormae (Thomas), occurred when insecticide application intervals were increased from 5 to 10 to 14 d. However, the magnitude of damaged fruit increase was greater with increasing application intervals in 1989 than in 1988. These differences were attributed to more frequent rainfall in 1989.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={WALGENBACH, JF and LEIDY, RB and SHEETS, TJ}, year={1991}, month={Jun}, pages={978–986} }
 @article{walgenbach_gorsuch_horton_1990, title={ADULT PHENOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF SPOTTED TENTIFORM LEAFMINER (LEPIDOPTERA, GRACILLARIIDAE) IN NORTH-CAROLINA, SOUTH-CAROLINA, AND GEORGIA}, volume={83}, ISSN={["0022-0493"]}, DOI={10.1093/jee/83.3.985}, abstractNote={Pheromone traps were used to study male flight phenology of spotted tentiform leafminer, Phyllonorycter blancardella (F.), in the major apple-producing regions of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia from 1986 through 1988. Trapping data indicated that P. blancardella completes four and a partial fifth generation per season. Adult emergence in November was attributed to portions of the fourth-generation pupal population that did not enter diapause. These adults did not contribute to the overwintering population because sap-feeding larvae did not develop into tissue feeders during this time. Laboratory and field studies suggested that the appearance of P. blancardella in the southern United States is due to population resistance to oregano phosphorous insecticides. Leafminer control was achieved with several insecticides applied before bloom; however, applications of pyrethroids before bloom disrupted mite predator populations from 12 to 18 wk after applications.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY}, author={WALGENBACH, JF and GORSUCH, CS and HORTON, DL}, year={1990}, month={Jun}, pages={985–994} }
 @article{walgenbach_1990, title={Tufted apple budmoth management in North Carolina}, volume={46}, number={1}, journal={Down to Earth}, author={Walgenbach, J. F.}, year={1990}, pages={17} }