@article{colon_early_munana_olby_mariani_mancini_fefer_li_briley_bailey_et al._2024, title={Pharmacokinetics of subcutaneous ketamine administration via the Omnipod® system in dogs}, volume={3}, ISSN={["1365-2885"]}, DOI={10.1111/jvp.13440}, abstractNote={AbstractKetamine is an injectable anesthetic agent with analgesic and antidepressant effects that can prevent maladaptive pain. Ketamine is metabolized by the liver into norketamine, an active metabolite. Prior rodent studies have suggested that norketamine is thought to contribute up to 30% of ketamine's analgesic effect. Ketamine is usually administered as an intravenous (IV) bolus injection or continuous rate infusion (CRI) but can be administered subcutaneously (SC) and intramuscularly (IM). The Omnipod® is a wireless, subcutaneous insulin delivery device that adheres to the skin and delivers insulin as an SC CRI. The Omnipod® was used in dogs for postoperative administration of ketamine as a 1 mg/kg infusion bolus (IB) over 1 hour (h). Pharmacokinetics (PK) showed plasma ketamine concentrations between 42 and 326.1 ng/mL. The median peak plasma concentration was 79.5 (41.9–326.1) ng/mL with a Tmax of 60 (30–75) min. After the same infusion bolus, the corresponding norketamine PK showed plasma drug concentrations between 22.0 and 64.8 ng/mL. The median peak plasma concentration was 43.0 (26.1–71.8) ng/mL with a median Tmax of 75 min. The median peak ketamine plasma concentration exceeded 100 ng/mL in dogs for less than 1 h post infusion. The Omnipod® system successfully delivered subcutaneous ketamine to dogs in the postoperatively.}, journal={JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS}, author={Colon, Claudia and Early, Peter and Munana, Karen and Olby, Natasha and Mariani, Christopher and Mancini, Shelby and Fefer, Gilad and Li, Zhong and Briley, Jessica and Bailey, Kate and et al.}, year={2024}, month={Mar} }
 @article{cassady_balko_bailey_posner_robertson_minter_2023, title={EVALUATION OF OSCILLOMETRIC BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT USING A FINGER CUFF IN ANESTHETIZED CHIMPANZEES (PAN TROGLODYTES)}, volume={54}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2021-0001}, abstractNote={Abstract: Cardiovascular disease is common among chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and serial blood pressure monitoring in conscious animals may improve disease surveillance and guide hypertension treatment strategies. The objective of this study was to compare the accuracy of a noninvasive, oscillometric blood pressure monitor using a finger blood pressure cuff with invasively measured blood pressure in anesthetized chimpanzees. Twelve chimpanzees were anesthetized with tiletamine–zolazepam intramuscularly, intubated, and maintained on inhaled isoflurane to effect. Blood pressure measurements, which included systolic arterial pressure (SAP), mean arterial pressure (MAP), and diastolic arterial pressure (DAP), were collected simultaneously from an oscillometric blood pressure cuff placed on a forelimb digit (FBP) and a direct arterial catheter (IBP) every 5–10 min while anesthetized. One hundred paired samples were collected, and results were compared using Bland–Altman plots and analysis. FBP showed good agreement with IBP for SAP, MAP, and DAP but consistently overestimated values compared with IBP. FBP may be useful for serial blood pressure monitoring in conscious chimpanzees.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Cassady, Katherine R. and Balko, Julie A. and Bailey, Kate M. and Posner, Lysa P. and Robertson, James B. and Minter, Larry J.}, year={2023}, month={Mar}, pages={16–22} }
 @article{bini_bailey_voyvodic_chiavaccini_munana_keenihan_2023, title={Effects of alfaxalone, propofol and isoflurane on cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity to carbon dioxide in dogs: A pilot study}, volume={291}, ISSN={["1532-2971"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.tvjl.2022.105939}, abstractNote={Propofol total intravenous anesthesia is a common choice to anesthetize patients with increased intracranial pressure, reducing cerebral blood flow while maintaining cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2. Propofol and alfaxalone are commonly used for total intravenous anesthesia in dogs, but the effects of alfaxalone on cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 are unknown. Our hypothesis was that alfaxalone would not be significantly different to propofol, while isoflurane would increase cerebral blood flow and decrease cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2. Six healthy hound dogs were evaluated in this randomized crossover trial. Dogs were anesthetized with 7.5 mg/kg propofol, 3 mg/kg alfaxalone or 8 % sevoflurane, mechanically ventilated and maintained with propofol (400 µg/kg/min), alfaxalone (150 µg/kg/min) or 1.7 % end-tidal isoflurane, respectively, with one week washout between treatments. Cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 during hypercapnic and hypocapnic challenges were measured using arterial spin labelling and blood oxygen level-dependent magnetic resonance imaging sequences, respectively. Median (interquartile range, IQR) normocapnic cerebral blood flow was significantly lower (P = 0.016) with alfaxalone compared to isoflurane, in the whole brain 15.39 mL/min/100 g (14.90–19.90 mL/min/100 g) vs. 34.10 mL/min/100 g (33.35–43.17 mL/min/100 g), the grey matter 14.57 mL/min/100 g (13.66–18.72 mL/min/100 g) vs. 32.37 mL/min/100 g (31.03–42.99 mL/min/100 g), the caudal brain 15.47 mL/min/100 g (13.37–21.45 mL/min/100 g) vs. 36.85 mL/min/100 g (32.50–47.18 mL/min/100 g) and the temporal lobe grey matter 18.80 mL/min/100 g (15.89–20.84 mL/min/100 g) vs. 43.32 (36.07–43.58 mL/min/100 g). Median (IQR) hypocapnic cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 was significantly higher (P = 0.016) for alfaxalone compared to isoflurane 8.85 %S/mm Hg (6.92–10.44 %S/mm Hg) vs. 3.90 %S/mm Hg (3.80–4.33 %S/mm Hg). Alfaxalone maintained lower cerebral blood flow and higher hypocapnic cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 than isoflurane.}, journal={VETERINARY JOURNAL}, author={Bini, G. and Bailey, K. M. and Voyvodic, J. T. and Chiavaccini, L. and Munana, K. R. and Keenihan, E. K.}, year={2023}, month={Jan} }
 @article{bini_cohen_chiavaccini_messenger_bailey_2022, title={Intravenous dexmedetomidine, morphine, or a combination can result in gallbladder wall thickening; with no significant association with plasma histamine concentrations}, volume={1}, ISSN={["1740-8261"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1111/vru.13056}, DOI={10.1111/vru.13056}, abstractNote={AbstractThe gallbladder is routinely evaluated during ultrasonographic examinations in dogs. However, published studies describing the effects of sedative agents on gallbladder wall thickness are currently lacking. The aims of this prospective, blinded, randomized crossover pilot study were to test hypotheses that IV morphine would result in gallbladder wall thickening, that morphine administration would increase plasma histamine concentrations, and that combining IV morphine with dexmedetomidine would potentiate gallbladder wall thickening. Six healthy Beagle dogs were sedated with intravenous (IV) morphine 0.4 mg/kg (group M), dexmedetomidine 7 μg/kg (group D), or a combination of the two (group MD). Physiologic parameters were measured at baseline and at regular intervals until the last ultrasonographic scan. Ultrasonographic scans were performed at baseline, 90 s, and at 5, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min. Plasma histamine samples were taken at baseline, 90 s, and 5 and 60 min. Cochran's Q‐test was used to compare gallbladder wall thickening between groups, while the association between histamine plasma concentration and gallbladder wall thickness was compared with a mixed‐effects model. Baseline gallbladder wall thickness was not significantly different between groups. Six of 18 treatments/dogs (33%) developed gallbladder thickening, with no difference between groups. There was no significant difference in baseline plasma histamine concentrations between groups, and no association between plasma histamine concentration and gallbladder wall thickness. Gallbladder wall thickening was observed in at least one dog in each group, therefore caution is recommended for gallbladder wall thickness ultrasonographic interpretation in dogs when these drugs have been administered.}, journal={VETERINARY RADIOLOGY & ULTRASOUND}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Bini, Gianluca and Cohen, Eli B. and Chiavaccini, Ludovica and Messenger, Kristen M. and Bailey, Kate M.}, year={2022}, month={Jan} }
 @misc{chiavaccini_schachar_early_bailey_2021, title={Ultrasound-guided perineural injections for the medical management of thoracic limb root signature in a dog}, volume={48}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.vaa.2021.03.003}, abstractNote={Perineural injection of corticosteroids using fluoroscopy guidance has been proposed as part of the multimodal medical management of root-signature signs associated with cervical lateralized disc material in dogs ( Giambuzzi et al., 2016 Giambuzzi S. Pancotto T. Ruth J. Perineural injection for treatment of root-signature signs associated with lateralized disk material in five dogs (2009–2013). Front Vet Sci. 2016; 3: 1 Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar ). However, the technique requires specialized equipment, is time-consuming and carries the risk of radiation exposure.}, number={3}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Chiavaccini, Ludovica and Schachar, Jordan and Early, Peter J. and Bailey, Kate M.}, year={2021}, month={May}, pages={480–482} }
 @article{archibald_scott_bailey_harms_2019, title={2-Phenoxyethanol (2-PE) and tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) immersion anesthesia of American horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus)}, volume={50}, ISBN={1937-2825}, ISSN={1042-7260}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2018-0085}, DOI={10.1638/2018-0085}, abstractNote={Abstract: Despite extensive literature examining American horseshoe crab physiology, there are comparatively few publications addressing their medical care. Establishing anesthesia protocols for horseshoe crabs is integral to limiting the potential stress and pain associated with invasive procedures and for advancing euthanasia techniques. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of two immersion anesthetics, tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) at 1 g/L (buffered with sodium carbonate) and 2-phenoxyethanol (2-PE) at 2 mL/L, on horseshoe crabs. Twenty horseshoe crabs were assigned to one of two anesthetic treatment groups and individually anesthetized in natural seawater. Water quality, cardiac contractility, and hemolymph gas analytes were measured prior to anesthesia and at 30 min Animals were monitored via heart rate, gilling rate, and sedation score every 5 min until recovered. Transcarapacial ultrasonography was used to obtain heart rate, gilling rate, and percent fractional shortening. Light or surgical anesthesia was produced in 10/10 animals in the 2-PE group and 8/10 animals in the MS-222 group. There was no significant difference in sedation scores, induction time (median 15 min), or recovery time (median 20.5 min). Gilling rate and cardiac contractility decreased during anesthesia, whereas heart rate did not. Hemolymph pH and pO2 were not different among treatment groups or time points. Baseline pCO2 was higher than pCO2 at 30 min for both groups but significantly elevated only in the MS-222 group. This is attributed to increased activity during the handling of awake animals. Invasive blood pressure obtained via cardiac catheterization in two animals was markedly decreased during surgical anesthesia. In conclusion, 2-PE and MS-222 provided effective anesthesia with clinically useful induction and recovery times. 2-PE provided a subjectively more reliable and smoother anesthesia compared to MS-222.}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Archibald, K.E. and Scott, G.N. and Bailey, K.M. and Harms, C.A.}, year={2019}, month={Apr}, pages={96–106} }
 @article{gatson_paranjape_wellehan_bailey_2019, title={A DESCRIPTIONOFARTERIAL BLOODPRESSUREMEASUREMENT IN TWO SPECIES OF FLYING FOXES (PTEROPUS VAMPYRUS AND PTEROPUS HYPOMELANUS)}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2018-0218}, abstractNote={Abstract: Blood pressure assessment is valuable during management of chronic conditions with increased risk of developing hypertension and as a standard practice for anesthetic monitoring. Normal arterial blood pressure values have not been well described in megachiropteran species. Following anesthetic induction and maintenance with isoflurane in oxygen, arterial blood pressure was obtained from the posterior tibial artery of eight large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) and six variable flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus), two with structural cardiac disease and four in good clinically health. Normal values reported as a median with interquartile range for systolic, diastolic, and mean (MAP) arterial pressures for P. vampyrus were 101 (94, 107), 69 (57, 80), and 86 (75, 93), respectively. Normal MAP for clinically healthy P. hypomelanus was 86 (67, 93). Placement of P. hypomelanus in a vertical head-down position did not alter blood pressure in clinically healthy bats, but significantly increased MAP in two bats with structural cardiac disease. Arterial catheterization of both the posterior tibial and median arteries in these species was easily performed without major complication.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Gatson, Bonnie J. and Paranjape, Vaidehi and Wellehan, James F. X. and Bailey, Kate}, year={2019}, month={Sep}, pages={665–671} }
 @article{balko_gatson_cohen_griffith_harms_bailey_2018, title={INHALANT ANESTHETIC RECOVERY FOLLOWING INTRAMUSCULAR EPINEPHRINE IN THE LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLE (CARETTA CARETTA)}, volume={49}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1638/2017-0182.1}, DOI={10.1638/2017-0182.1}, abstractNote={Abstract Prolonged anesthetic recovery time is a common complication of chelonian inhalant anesthesia and may be exacerbated by right-to-left intracardiac shunting of blood. Epinephrine may decrease intracardiac shunting, which may shorten anesthetic recovery time. The study objective was to assess inhalant anesthetic recovery time following intramuscular epinephrine compared with saline in the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). With the use of a prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover design with a 1-wk washout period, six turtles were anesthetized with intravenous (IV) alfaxalone 3 mg/kg, orotracheally intubated, manually ventilated with 3.5% isoflurane inhalant in 100% oxygen for 90 min, and administered either intramuscular (IM) epinephrine 0.1 mg/kg or IM saline 0.1 ml/kg. Isoflurane administration was immediately discontinued and turtles were manually ventilated with room air until extubation. Physiologic variables, sedation scores, end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) and isoflurane (ETISO) concentrations, time to first movement, and time to extubation were recorded and two-time-point venous blood gas analyses performed. Data were compared with the use of paired t-tests and repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) (P < 0.05). No morbidity, mortality, or adverse events occurred. ETCO2 and ETISO did not significantly change over time during the isoflurane delivery period (P = 0.990). Mean time to first movement was significantly faster following epinephrine (69.24 ± 12.28 min) compared with saline (87.71 ± 27.05 min, P = 0.047). Although differences were not statistically significant (P = 0.133), time to extubation was at least 30 min faster (31–123 min) in 4/6 turtles following epinephrine compared with saline. Intramuscular epinephrine significantly reduces time to first movement during isoflurane anesthetic recovery in loggerhead sea turtles.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Balko, Julie A. and Gatson, Bonnie J. and Cohen, Eli B. and Griffith, Emily H. and Harms, Craig A. and Bailey, Kate M.}, year={2018}, month={Sep}, pages={680–688} }
 @article{carrera-justiz_gatson_bailey_wellehan_2018, title={MOTOR NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITIES OF THE MEDIAN AND SCIATIC-TIBIAL NERVES IN EIGHT NORMAL LARGE FLYING FOXES (PTEROPUS VAMPYRUS)}, volume={49}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2017-0209.1}, abstractNote={Abstract Electrodiagnostic testing is an integral part of the evaluation of the motor unit in many neurologic conditions. Literature about the peripheral nervous system of flying foxes (Pteropus spp) is sparse, and reference range values for motor nerve conduction velocities in vivo have not been established in Chiropterans. The goals of this study were to determine reference range conduction velocities in flying fox for the thoracic and pelvic limb nerve. Eight Pteropus vampyrus, large flying foxes, of varying ages and gender underwent nerve conduction studies of the median nerve and sciatic-tibial nerve. Mean (SD) conduction velocity values were 49.8 (12.7) m/sec for the median nerve and 42.1 (10.2) m/sec for the sciatic-tibial nerve. Median nerve conduction velocities were not significantly faster than sciatic-tibial nerve conduction velocities, although a trend was seen. Differences by sex or age class were not statistically significant. It was also noted that flying foxes rapidly lose body heat under general anesthesia.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Carrera-Justiz, Sheila and Gatson, Bonnie and Bailey, Kate and Wellehan, James}, year={2018}, month={Sep}, pages={632–637} }
 @article{oda_messenger_carbajal_posner_gardner_hammer_cerreta_lewbart_bailey_2018, title={Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) following immersion in propofol}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.vaa.2018.02.005}, abstractNote={{"Label"=>"OBJECTIVE", "NlmCategory"=>"OBJECTIVE"} To test the hypothesis that plasma propofol concentration (PPC) is associated with anesthetic effect in koi carp administered propofol by immersion. {"Label"=>"STUDY DESIGN", "NlmCategory"=>"METHODS"} Prospective study. {"Label"=>"ANIMALS", "NlmCategory"=>"METHODS"} Twenty mature koi carp (mean ± standard deviation, 409.4 ± 83.7 g). {"Label"=>"METHODS", "NlmCategory"=>"METHODS"} Fish were immersed in propofol (5 mg L {"sup"=>"-1"} ). Physiological variables and induction and recovery times were recorded. In phase I, blood was sampled for PPC immediately following induction and at recovery. In phase II, following induction, fish were maintained with propofol (4 mg L {"sup"=>"-1"} ) via a recirculating system for 20 minutes. Following established induction, blood was sampled at 1, 10 and 20 minutes. In phase III (n = 19), fish were anesthetized as in phase II with blood sampled nine times in a sparse sampling strategy. Simultaneously, a pharmacodynamics rubric was used to evaluate anesthetic depth. PPC was determined using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Following evaluation of normality, data were analyzed using paired t test or Spearman correlation test (significance was set at p < 0.05). {"Label"=>"RESULTS", "NlmCategory"=>"RESULTS"} In phase I, mean PPCs at induction (20.12 μg mL {"sup"=>"-1"} ) and recovery (11.62 μg mL {"sup"=>"-1"} ) were different (p < 0.001). In phase II, only mean PPCs at induction (17.92 μg mL {"sup"=>"-1"} ) and 10 minutes (21.50 μg mL {"sup"=>"-1"} ) were different (p = 0.013). In phase III, a correlation between PPCs and the pharmacodynamic rubric scores was found (p < 0.001, r = -0.93). There was no correlation between PPCs and recovery time (p = 0.057, r = 0.433). A two-compartment open model was chosen for the pharmacokinetic model. Absorption rate constant, elimination rate constant and intercompartmental rate constant were 0.48, 0.006 and 0.02 minute {"sup"=>"-1"} , respectively. {"Label"=>"CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE", "NlmCategory"=>"CONCLUSIONS"} Measurable PPCs were achieved in koi carp anesthetized with propofol by immersion. Anesthetic depth of fish was negatively correlated with PPCs, but recovery time was not.}, number={4}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Oda, Ayako and Messenger, Kristen M. and Carbajal, Liliana and Posner, Lysa P. and Gardner, Brett R. and Hammer, Scott H. and Cerreta, Anthony J. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Bailey, Kate M.}, year={2018}, month={Jul}, pages={529–538} }
 @inbook{jarrett_bailey_messenger_prange_gaines_posner_2016, title={Recovery of horses from general anesthesia following induction with either propofol or midazolam followed by ketamine}, volume={253}, DOI={10.2460/javma.253.1.101}, abstractNote={Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate quality of recovery from general anesthesia in horses after induction with propofol and ketamine versus midazolam and ketamine.
DESIGN Prospective randomized crossover study.
ANIMALS 6 healthy adult horses.
PROCEDURES Horses were premedicated with xylazine (1.0 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb], IV), and general anesthesia was induced with midazolam (0.1 mg/kg [0.045 mg/lb], IV) or propofol (0.5 mg/kg [0.23 mg/lb], IV), followed by ketamine (3.0 mg/kg [1.36 mg/lb], IV). Horses were endotracheally intubated, and anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane. After 60 minutes, horses were given romifidine (0.02 mg/kg [0.009 mg/lb], IV) and allowed to recover unassisted. Times to first movement, sternal recumbency, and standing and the number of attempts to stand were recorded. Plasma concentrations of propofol or midazolam were measured following induction and immediately before recovery. Recovery quality was scored by 3 graders with a recovery rubric and a visual analog scale.
RESULTS Number of attempts to stand was significantly lower when horses received propofol (median, 2; range, 1 to 3) than when they received midazolam (median, 7.5; range, 3 to 16). For both the recovery rubric and visual analog scale, recovery quality was significantly better when horses received propofol than when they received midazolam. Plasma drug concentration at recovery, as a percentage of the concentration at induction, was significantly lower when horses received propofol than when they received midazolam.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that for horses undergoing short (ie, 60 minutes) periods of general anesthesia, recovery quality may be better following induction with propofol and ketamine, compared with midazolam and ketamine.}, number={1}, booktitle={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, author={Jarrett, M.A. and Bailey, K.M. and Messenger, K.M. and Prange, T. and Gaines, B. and Posner, L.P.}, year={2016}, month={Jul}, pages={101–107} }
 @article{royal_hunt_gonzalez_lewbart_bailey_2018, title={Veterinary Medical Students' Motivations for Exercise}, volume={45}, ISSN={0748-321X 1943-7218}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/jvme.0117-004r}, DOI={10.3138/jvme.0117-004r}, abstractNote={ The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) declares exercise to be one of the most important activities one can do to improve health. The benefits of exercise are well documented and include both physiologic and psychological health. Given the current landscape of wellness issues in veterinary medical education, it is necessary that students engage in exercise activities to manage stress and increase overall health. Therefore, to develop targeted interventions with the greatest likelihood for success, it is first necessary to understand what motivates veterinary medical students to exercise given their unique situational and environmental factors. This study is the first to explore this issue systematically in veterinary medical education, thus it is the authors' hope that the findings from this research will help identify exercise-related wellness interventions that could be implemented in veterinary medical schools. }, number={3}, journal={Journal of Veterinary Medical Education}, publisher={University of Toronto Press Inc. (UTPress)}, author={Royal, Kenneth D. and Hunt, Suzanne A. and Gonzalez, Liara M. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Bailey, Kate M.}, year={2018}, month={Aug}, pages={367–373} }
 @article{bailey_minter_lewbart_harms_griffith_posner_2014, title={ALFAXALONE AS AN INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTABLE ANESTHETIC IN KOI CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO)}, volume={45}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2014-0056.1}, DOI={10.1638/2014-0056.1}, abstractNote={Abstract:  Fish are commonly anesthetized with MS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate), a sodium-channel-blocker used as an immersion anesthetic, but its mechanism of action as a general anesthetic is uncertain. Alfaxalone is a neurosteroid that acts at the GABAA receptors. Alfaxalone has been evaluated and was deemed successful as an immersion agent in koi carp. Alfaxalone is an effective intramuscular anesthetic in multiple species. A reliable intramuscular anesthetic in fish would be useful in multiple settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate alfaxalone as an intramuscular injectable anesthetic agent in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio). Eight koi carp were utilized in a crossover design. In each trial, six fish received 1 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg of alfaxalone intramuscularly. They were assessed every 15 min for opercular rate and sedation score. The sedation score was based on a visual scale from 0 to 5, 0 indicating no response and 5 indicating absent righting reflex and anesthesia. Anesthetized koi were placed on a fish anesthesia delivery system (FADS). Time to anesthesia/recovery was recorded and heart rate was recorded every 15 min. Anesthesia was achieved in 0/6, 1/6, and 5/6 fish at 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, respectively. Duration of anesthesia for one fish at 5 mg/kg was 2 hr. At 10 mg/kg, median anesthesia duration was 6.5 (3–10) hr. At 10 mg/kg, prolonged apnea (2–3 hr) was observed in 3/6 fish, 2/3 died under anesthesia, and 1/3 recovered 10 hr post-injection. Median peak sedation scores were 1.5, 2.5, and 5, at 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, respectively. A dosage of 10 mg/kg alfaxalone resulted in 33% mortality. The duration of anesthesia and opercular rate were unpredictable. Due to variation in response despite consistent conditions, as well as risk of mortality, intramuscular alfaxalone cannot be recommended for anesthesia in koi carp.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Bailey, Kate M. and Minter, Larry J. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Harms, Craig A. and Griffith, Emily H. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2014}, month={Dec}, pages={852–858} }
 @article{oda_bailey_lewbart_griffith_posner_2014, title={Physiologic and biochemical assessments of koi (Cyprinus carpio) following immersion in propofol}, volume={245}, ISSN={["1943-569X"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.245.11.1286}, abstractNote={Abstract
Objective—To determine efficacy of propofol as an immersion agent to induce general anesthesia in koi (Cyprinus carpio).
Design—Prospective, crossover study.
Animals—10 adult koi (mean ± SD weight, 325 ± 81 g).
Procedures—Koi were exposed to each of 4 concentrations of propofol (1, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/L) with a 1-week washout period between trials. In a subsequent trial, koi were anesthetized with propofol (5 mg/L) and anesthesia was maintained with propofol (3 mg/L) for 20 minutes. Response to a noxious stimulus was assessed by means of needle insertion into an epaxial muscle.
Results—At a propofol concentration of 1 mg/L, koi were sedated but never anesthetized. At propofol concentrations of 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/L, mean ± SD anesthetic induction times were 13.4 ± 3.3, 3.8 ± 1.1, and 2.3 ± 0.9 minutes, respectively; mean recovery times were 12.9 ± 8.3, 11.0 ± 6.3, and 18.1 ± 13.0 minutes; mean heart rates were 57 ± 25, 30 ± 14, and 22 ± 14 beats/min; mean opercular rates were 58 ± 18, 68 ± 15, and 48 ± 22 beats/min; and 1 of 10, 2 of 10, and 0 of 10 fish responded to needle insertion. All fish recovered satisfactorily. Following 20 minutes of anesthesia, 2 fish had recovery times > 4 hours and 1 fish died.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Immersion in propofol at concentrations ≥ 2.5 mg/L induced general anesthesia in koi. Maintenance of anesthesia with propofol for 20 minutes was associated with prolonged recovery times in 2 of 9 and death in 1 of 9 koi.}, number={11}, journal={JAVMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Oda, Ayako and Bailey, Kate M. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Griffith, Emily H. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2014}, month={Dec}, pages={1286–1291} }
 @article{minter_bailey_harms_lewbart_posner_2014, title={The efficacy of alfaxalone for immersion anesthesia in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio)}, volume={41}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12113}, DOI={10.1111/vaa.12113}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To characterize the physiologic and behavioral effects of a single induction dose and two maintenance doses of alfaxalone delivered by water immersion in the anesthesia of koi (Cyprinus carpio).


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, within-subject complete crossover design.


ANIMALS
Six adult koi (Cyprinus carpio) with a median body weight of 344.5 g (range 292.0-405.0 g).


METHODS
Koi were immersed in water containing 10 mg L(-1) alfaxalone until immobile and then maintained with alfaxalone at either 1 or 2.5 mg L(-1) via a recirculating water system. Times for anesthetic induction and recovery periods were recorded. Physiologic and blood gas parameters were evaluated before, during and after the anesthetic trial. Response to noxious stimuli was also assessed.


RESULTS
Median anesthesia induction time for all fish was 5.4 minutes. Median recovery time was 11.8 and 26.4 minutes in the 1.0 and 2.5 mg L(-1) doses, respectively, which were significantly different (p = 0.04). Cessation of opercular movement occurred in 0/6 and 4/6 fish exposed to 1.0 and 2.5 mg L(-1) dose respectively. No difference was observed in median heart rate over the duration of the anesthetic events. Response to noxious stimulation was 4/6 and 0/6 in the 1.0 and 2.5 mg L(-1) doses respectively. Oxygenation and ventilation did not change during the experiment, but there was a significant decrease in blood pH along with an increase in blood lactate concentration.


CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Administration of alfaxalone, via water immersion, as an induction and maintenance anesthesia agent provided rapid and reliable anesthesia of koi with no mortality. The maintenance dose of 2.5 mg L(-1) was sufficient to prevent response to noxious stimuli but was associated with a clinically relevant depression in opercular rate.}, number={4}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Minter, Larry J and Bailey, Kate M and Harms, Craig A and Lewbart, Gregory A and Posner, Lysa P}, year={2014}, month={Jul}, pages={398–405} }
 @article{posner_bailey_richardson_motsinger-reif_harms_2013, title={Alfaxalone anesthesia in bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeiana) by injection or immersion}, volume={44}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2013-0090R.1}, DOI={10.1638/2013-0090r.1}, abstractNote={This project evaluated alfaxalone, a neurosteroid, as an anesthetic in bullfrogs. Eight adult bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeiana), averaging 593 g (411-780 g) each, were used in a crossover design. Frogs were administered alfaxalone i.m. at 10, 12, 15, or 17.5 mg/kg with a 1-wk washout. Following injection, time to recumbency, first limb movement following induction, and recovery were recorded. Respiratory rate was recorded following injection and then every 15 min following induction. Heart rate was assessed via Doppler every 15 min following induction. At 20 and 40 min, a 25-ga needle was inserted in a thigh muscle to assess response to noxious stimuli. Frogs were also immersed in 2 g/L of alfaxalone for up to 30 min and similarly assessed. At dosages of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, the median time to recumbency was 15.4, 12.6, 12.3, and 6.6 min, respectively. At dosages of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, median time to first limb movement was 68.5, 77.5, 89.0, and 115 min, respectively. At dosages of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, median time to recovery was 90, 68.5, 124.5, 115 min, respectively. Following induction, at 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, median heart rate was 42, 40, 40, and 42, respectively; and median respiratory rate was 44, 36, 29, and 35, respectively. Following administration of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/ kg, 8/8, 6/8, 7/8, and 8/8 frogs, respectively, responded to needle insertion. None of the frogs dosed by immersion became anesthetized. Intramuscular alfaxalone produced immobilization in frogs but did not provide sufficient anesthesia to prevent response to noxious stimuli. Alfaxalone immersion at 2 g/L for 30 min did not produce immobilization or anesthesia.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Posner, Lysa Pam and Bailey, Kate M. and Richardson, Erika Y. and Motsinger-Reif, Alison A. and Harms, Craig A.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={965–971} }
 @article{minter_harms_archibald_broadhurst_bailey_christiansen_lewbart_posner_2013, title={EFFICACY OF ALFAXALONE FOR INTRAVASCULAR ANESTHESIA AND EUTHANASIA IN BLUE CRABS (CALLINECTES SAPIDUS)}, volume={44}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2012-0285r1.1}, DOI={10.1638/2012-0285r1.1}, abstractNote={The objective of this study was to characterize the behavioral effects and changes in heart rate of four doses of alfaxalone delivered by intravascular injection to blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Thirty (male, n = 27; female, n = 3) blue crabs were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups of alfaxalone: eight animals were assigned to each of the 5-, 10-, and 15-mg/kg treatment groups, and the remaining six animals were assigned to the 100-mg/kg group. Times for anesthetic induction and recovery periods were recorded. Righting reflex, defensive posturing, and heart rate were evaluated before, during, and after the anesthetic trial. Anesthesia was induced in all 14 animals consolidated into the high-dosage group (15 mg/kg [n = 8] and 100 mg/kg [n = 6]), which was significantly greater than 8 of 16 animals in the low-dosage group (5 mg/kg [n = 2] and 10 mg/kg [n = 6]). Median anesthesia induction time for all crabs was 0.4 min, with no significant difference in induction time between groups observed. Median recovery time was 9.4 min (n = 2), 6.1 min (n = 5), 11.3 min (n = 8), and 66.1 min (n = 5) for the 5-, 10-, 15-, and 100-mg/kg groups, respectively. Recovery times were significantly longer for crabs exposed to an induction dose of 100 mg/kg compared with the 10- and 15-mg/kg induction doses. A significant decrease in the median heart rate was observed between the baseline value and that observed at both induction and 5 min postinjection in the 100-mg/kg dose trial. Two mortalities were observed during the anesthesia trials (n = 1, 10 mg/kg; n = 1, 100 mg/kg), both associated with the autotomization of limbs. In summary, the intravascular administration of alfaxalone at 15 mg/kg provided rapid and reliable sedation, whereas alfaxalone administered at 100 mg/kg produced rapid and long lasting anesthesia.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Minter, Larry J. and Harms, Craig A. and Archibald, Kate E and Broadhurst, Heather and Bailey, Kate M. and Christiansen, Emily F. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2013}, month={Sep}, pages={694–699} }
 @article{bailey_hempstead_tobias_borst_clode_posner_2013, title={Evaluation of the effects of tricaine methanesulfonate on retinal structure and function in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio)}, volume={242}, ISSN={0003-1488}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.242.11.1578}, DOI={10.2460/javma.242.11.1578}, abstractNote={Abstract
Objective—To determine whether repeated exposure to clinically relevant concentrations of tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) would alter retinal function or induce histologically detectable retinal lesions in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio).
Design—Prospective, controlled, experimental study.
Animals—18 healthy koi carp.
Procedures—2 fish were euthanized at the start of the study, and eyes were submitted for histologic evaluation as untreated controls. Anesthesia was induced in the remaining fish with 200 mg of MS-222/L and maintained with concentrations of 125 to 150 mg/L for a total exposure time of 20 minutes daily on 1 to 13 consecutive days. On days 1, 7, and 13, electroretinography of both eyes was performed in all fish remaining in the study, and 2 fish were euthanized immediately after each procedure for histologic evaluation of the eyes. Median b-wave amplitudes were compared among study days for right eyes and for left eyes via 1-way repeated-measures ANOVA with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons.
Results—Median b-wave amplitudes on days 1, 7, and 13 were 17.7, 20.9, and 17.6 μV, respectively, for right eyes and 15.1, 16.9, and 14.3 μV, respectively, for left eyes. No significant differences in b-wave amplitudes were detected among study days. No histopathologic abnormalities were identified in the retinas of any fish treated with MS-222 or in control fish.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Short-term exposure of koi carp to clinically relevant concentrations of MS-222 daily for up to 13 days was not associated with changes in retinal structure or function as measured in this study.}, number={11}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Society}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Bailey, K.M. and Hempstead, J.E. and Tobias, J.R. and Borst, L. and Clode, A.B. and Posner, L.P.}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={1578–1582} }