@article{leonard_worden_boettcher_dickinson_hartstone-rose_2022, title={Effects of long-term ethanol storage on muscle architecture}, volume={305}, ISSN={["1932-8494"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.24638}, DOI={10.1002/ar.24638}, abstractNote={Muscle excursion and force potential can be estimated from architectural variables, including mass, volume, fascicle length, and density. These have been collected from fresh specimens, preserved specimens, and sometimes mixed samples of both. However, preservation alters the gross morphology of muscles. This study aims to quantify the effects of long-term storage on myological properties across a sample of fresh and ethanol preserved Mus musculus specimens ranging in storage time from 16 to 130 years. Masses, volumes, and densities of biceps femoris, quadriceps femoris, and triceps surae were measured, and histological cross-sections of some specimens were used to evaluate the microscale effects of long-term fluid preservation. For the remainder of the sample, chemically dissected fascicle lengths were measured to evaluate the fixation effects on the linear dimensions of muscle architecture. Relative muscle mass, volume, fascicle length, average fiber area, and density, and percent fiber area were regressed against years stored in ethanol. Muscle size dropped steeply between fresh and stored samples, ultimately decreasing by 62 and 60%, respectively. These losses correlate with histologically measured shrinking of average muscle fiber area. Density of stored specimens plateaued 5% below that of fresh ones. Although muscles lost mass and volume during ethanol storage, fascicle lengths did not shorten significantly (presumably because they were preserved attached on either end to bone). This study demonstrates that muscle mass, volume, and density of specimens stored long-term in ethanol should be corrected by factors of 2.64, 2.49, and 1.054 respectively for comparability to fresh specimens.}, number={1}, journal={ANATOMICAL RECORD-ADVANCES IN INTEGRATIVE ANATOMY AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Leonard, Kaitlyn C. and Worden, Nikole and Boettcher, Marissa L. and Dickinson, Edwin and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2022}, month={Jan}, pages={184–198} }
 @article{leonard_worden_boettcher_dickinson_omstead_burrows_hartstone-rose_2021, title={Anatomical and ontogenetic influences on muscle density}, volume={11}, ISSN={["2045-2322"]}, DOI={10.1038/s41598-021-81489-w}, abstractNote={Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), an important biomechanical variable, is an estimate of a muscle's contractile force potential and is derived from dividing muscle mass by the product of a muscle's average fascicle length and a theoretical constant representing the density of mammalian skeletal muscle. This density constant is usually taken from experimental studies of small samples of several model taxa using tissues collected predominantly from the lower limbs of adult animals. The generalized application of this constant to broader analyses of mammalian myology assumes that muscle density (1) is consistent across anatomical regions and (2) is unaffected by the aging process. To investigate the validity of these assumptions, we studied muscles of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in the largest sample heretofore investigated explicitly for these variables, and we did so from numerous anatomical regions and from three different age-cohorts. Differences in muscle density and histology as a consequence of age and anatomical region were evaluated using Tukey's HSD tests. Overall, we observed that older individuals tend to have denser muscles than younger individuals. Our findings also demonstrated significant differences in muscle density between anatomic regions within the older cohorts, though none in the youngest cohort. Approximately 50% of the variation in muscle density can be explained histologically by the average muscle fiber area and the average percent fiber area. That is, muscles with larger average fiber areas and a higher proportion of fiber area tend to be denser. Importantly, using the age and region dependent measurements of muscle density that we provide may increase the accuracy of PCSA estimations. Although we found statistically significant differences related to ontogeny and anatomical region, if density cannot be measured directly, the specific values presented herein should be used to improve accuracy. If a single muscle density constant that has been better validated than the ones presented in the previous literature is preferred, then 1.0558 and 1.0502 g/cm3 would be reasonable constants to use across all adult and juvenile muscles respectively.}, number={1}, journal={SCIENTIFIC REPORTS}, author={Leonard, Kaitlyn C. and Worden, Nikole and Boettcher, Marissa L. and Dickinson, Edwin and Omstead, Kailey M. and Burrows, Anne M. and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2021}, month={Jan} }
 @article{leonard_worden_boettcher_dickinson_hartstone-rose_2021, title={Effects of freezing and short-term fixation on muscle mass, volume, and density}, volume={5}, ISSN={["1932-8494"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.24639}, DOI={10.1002/ar.24639}, abstractNote={Preventing postmortem deterioration of soft-tissues is an important requisite of anatomical research. In order to provide corrections for potential myological distortions, this study quantifies the acute effects of freezing, formalin fixation and ethanol storage using muscles from (n = 46) rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Bilateral dissections of specific muscles were performed and each side was assigned to a different preparation group (fresh, formalin fixation only, fixation followed by short duration ethanol storage, and freezing once or twice). We demonstrate that short-term freezing at -20C and thawing have no significant effect on muscle mass, volume, and density while short-term formalin fixation and ethanol storage significantly reduces mass and volume (density remains relatively constant.) Although freezing may have less of an effect on the gross morphometric characteristics of the musculature than ethanol storage, slow freezing damages muscle microanatomy, and therefore, faster freezing and other modes of preservation such as formalin fixation and ethanol storage may be preferable. Based on our results, we derived the following correction factors for each preparation: the mass of specimens stored in 70% ethanol should be multiplied by 1.69 to approximate fresh muscle mass, and specimens fixed in 10% formalin multiplied by 1.32. Although not significant, specimens frozen-once were slightly less massive and could be multiplied by 1.03 (frozen-twice ×1.09). The volumetric corrections are: ethanol 1.64; 10% formalin 1.32; frozen-once 1.03; frozen-twice 1.10. While the density of ethanol preserved specimens is slightly less than that of fresh ones (correction: 1.03), those preserved in formalin and frozen maintain nearly the same density.}, journal={ANATOMICAL RECORD-ADVANCES IN INTEGRATIVE ANATOMY AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Leonard, Kaitlyn C. and Worden, Nikole and Boettcher, Marissa L. and Dickinson, Edwin and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2021}, month={May} }
 @article{leonard_worden_dickinson_hartstone-rose_2020, title={Anatomical and Ontogenetic Influences on Muscle Density}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1530-6860"]}, DOI={10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.06384}, journal={FASEB JOURNAL}, author={Leonard, Kaitlyn and Worden, Nikole and Dickinson, Edwin and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2020}, month={Apr} }
 @article{boettcher_dickinson_leonard_herrel_hartstone-rose_2020, title={Anatomical reorganization within the hand and forelimb of <it>Perodicticus potto</it>}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1530-6860"]}, DOI={10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.06629}, abstractNote={Historical behavioral accounts note extraordinarily high grip strength in Perodicticus potto. Anatomical analysis of the potto’s hand and forelimb reveal several specializations that may facilitate this enhanced gripping ability, including a specialized vascular bundle (the retia mirabilia) within the wrist, a hyper-abducted pollex, and a highly reduced second digit. The myological correlates of grip strength (i.e., the contractile potential of the hand and wrist musculature) of P. potto, however, have yet to be quantitatively evaluated. The current study contrasts the myology of the hand and forearm muscles within P. potto to a series of closely-related strepsirrhines (Nycticebus coucang, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Hapalemur griseus, and Eulemur mongoz), as well as comparing the forearm musculature to a broader (n= 41) primate sample. Despite reports of the potto’s high grip strength, our findings demonstrate relatively below-average force capacity (relatively low physiological cross-sectional area) within the digital flexors of this species, which suggests that the gripping ability of this species may be less extraordinary than previously hypothesized. In addition to this observation, we report a number of unusual myological features within the potto, including the largest brachioradialis (an elbow flexor) of any taxon within our sample. Even more surprisingly, we identified an independent extensor indicis within P. potto, despite the vestigial nature of the second digit, and the absence of this muscle within ~25% of other taxa within our sample - all of which possessed a more substantial second digit than the potto. These data underscore the curious nature of the potto’s antebrachial musculature, but suggest that adaptations within the potto’s forelimb may be more related to maximizing endurance grip potential than towards increasing myological force. Support or Funding Information National Science Foundation (IOS-15-57125 and BCS-14-40599)}, journal={FASEB JOURNAL}, author={Boettcher, Marissa and Dickinson, Edwin and Leonard, Kaitlyn and Herrel, Anthony and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2020}, month={Apr} }
 @book{boettcher_leonard_herrel_hartstone-rose_2020, title={Evolution, Ecology and Conservation of Lorises and Pottos}, volume={86}, ISBN={["978-1-108-45288-5"]}, ISSN={["1746-2266"]}, DOI={10.1017/9781108676526}, abstractNote={Book summary page views Book summary page views help Close Book summary page views help Book summary views reflect the number of visits to the book and chapter landing pages. Total views: 0 * Loading metrics...}, journal={EVOLUTION, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF LORISES AND POTTOS}, author={Boettcher, Marissa and Leonard, Kaitlyn C. and Herrel, Anthony and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2020}, pages={1–491} }
 @article{boettcher_leonard_dickinson_herrel_hartstone-rose_2019, title={Extraordinary grip strength and specialized myology in the hyper-derived hand of Perodicticus potto?}, volume={235}, ISSN={["1469-7580"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13051}, DOI={10.1111/joa.13051}, abstractNote={Previous behavioral reports of the African lorisid, Perodicticus potto, have speculated that these animals have an extraordinary grip strength. This ability is hypothesized to be facilitated by a range of anatomical features within the forelimb, ranging from the presence of a retia mirabilia in its wrist to the hyper-abduction of its pollex. Despite numerous behavioral reports, however, this claim of extraordinary grip strength has not been empirically substantiated. This study quantifies the physiological cross-sectional area of the digital flexor muscles within P. potto. These data are compared with a broad primate sample, including several similarly sized strepsirrhines. Contrary to expectation, we found that P. potto actually has relatively below-average digital flexor PCSA. However, we identified other myological characteristics in the upper limb of P. potto that were unexpected, including the largest brachioradialis muscle (an elbow flexor) among our primate sample, and – despite P. potto having only a vestigial second digit – an independent digital extensor indicis that is absent in almost a quarter of our primate sample.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF ANATOMY}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Boettcher, Marissa L. and Leonard, Kaitlyn C. and Dickinson, Edwin and Herrel, Anthony and Hartstone-Rose, Adam}, year={2019}, month={Nov}, pages={931–939} }