@article{petritz_enomoto_meyer_thomson_baynes_flammer_2023, title={Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim After Oral Administration of Single and Multiple Doses to Rhode Island Red Chickens (<i>Gallus gallus domesticus</i>)}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1938-2871"]}, DOI={10.1647/22-00020}, abstractNote={Abstract: Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (SMZ-TMP), a commonly prescribed antibiotic for backyard hens, is neither Food and Drug Administration approved nor prohibited in laying hens in the United States. The aim of this study was to determine whether plasma concentrations above targeted minimum inhibitory concentration breakpoint values for Enterobacteriaceae could be achieved with oral dosing. Five Rhode Island red hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) were administered a single dose of 96 mg/kg SMZ-TMP (80 mg/kg SMZ and 16 mg/kg TMP) IV followed by the same dose orally after a washout period. Following oral dosing, mean SMZ concentrations exceeded the target breakpoint for approximately 12 hours; however, TMP only briefly exceeded the target breakpoint. Bioavailability was 60.5% for SMZ and 82.0% for TMP. Ten naïve birds were allocated into control (n = 4) and treatment (n = 6) groups for a 7-day multi-dose study. Treatment birds received an oral suspension dosed at 16 mg/kg TMP and 80 mg/kg SMZ every 48 hours (on days 1, 3, 5, and 7); TMP tablets were additionally dosed at 25 mg/bird on days 1, 3, 5, and 7, and 50 mg/bird on days 2, 4, and 6. Plasma SMZ-TMP concentrations were measured on a multiple time interval by ultraperformance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, and pharmacokinetic analyses were performed using a noncompartmental model. No accumulation for either drug was noted following repeated dosing, and no statistical differences in biochemical values, packed cell volumes, or weight were found between pre- and posttreatment in either the treatment or control groups. Sulfamethoxazole (80 mg/kg q48h PO) and TMP (24.1–28.0 mg/kg q24h PO) maintained therapeutic plasma concentrations at or exceeding the minimum inhibitory concentration breakpoint of Enterobacteriaceae for 72 and 24 hours for TMP and SMZ, respectively, without evidence of adverse effects or drug accumulation. Further studies are needed to refine this dosage regimen and evaluate adverse effects in ill birds.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Petritz, Olivia A. and Enomoto, Hiroko and Meyer, Emma G. and Thomson, Andrea and Baynes, Ronald E. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2023}, month={Mar}, pages={1–12} }
 @article{enomoto_petritz_thomson_flammer_ferdous_meyer_tell_baynes_2021, title={Egg residue and depletion in Rhode Island Red hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) following multiple oral doses of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole}, volume={123}, ISSN={["1096-0295"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.104941}, DOI={10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.104941}, abstractNote={Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim residues in eggs can cause risks to human health. The most common cause of residues in eggs results from failure to meet an appropriate withdrawal interval. The aim of this study was to determine the quantity and duration of sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim residues in eggs and evaluate the drug elimination parameters in egg components and whole egg to better estimate the withdrawal interval of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim following oral administration for 7 days at a purposed dosage regimen (time average 46 mg kg-1 day-1 for sulfamethoxazole, time average 25 mg kg-1 day-1 for trimethoprim). Residues of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in albumen and yolk were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. A greater percentage of sulfamethoxazole was distributed into the albumen (91.53-96.74%) and a greater percentage of trimethoprim was distributed into yolk (63.92-77.36%) during treatment. The residues levels in whole egg declined below or reached the limit of quantification until 13 days for SMZ and TMP respectively. The withdrawal interval for SMZ and TMP were 43 days and 17 days respectively using the FDA tolerance method.}, journal={REGULATORY TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Enomoto, Hiroko and Petritz, Olivia A. and Thomson, Andrea E. and Flammer, Keven and Ferdous, Farha and Meyer, Emma and Tell, Lisa A. and Baynes, Ronald E.}, year={2021}, month={Jul} }
 @article{balsamo_maxted_midla_murphy_wohrle_edling_fish_flammer_hyde_kutty_et al._2017, title={Compendium of measures to control Chlamydia psittaci infection among humans (Psittacosis) and pet birds (Avian Chlamydiosis), 2017}, volume={31}, DOI={10.1647/217-265}, abstractNote={Abstract Psittacosis, also known as parrot fever and ornithosis, is a bacterial infection that can cause severe pneumonia and other serious health problems in humans. It is caused by Chlamydia psittaci. Reclassification of the order Chlamydiales in 1999 into 2 genera (Chlamydia and Chlamydophila) was not wholly accepted or adopted. This resulted in a reversion to the single, original genus Chlamydia, which now encompasses all 9 species including Chlamydia psittaci. During 2003–2014, 112 human cases of psittacosis were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through the Nationally Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System. While many types of birds can be infected by C psittaci, in general, the literature suggests that human cases can most often occur after exposure to infected parrot-type birds kept as pets, especially cockatiels, parakeets, and conures. In birds, C psittaci infection is referred to as avian chlamydiosis. Infected birds shed the bacteria through feces and nasal discharges, and humans become infected from exposure to these materials. This compendium provides information about psittacosis and avian chlamydiosis to public health officials, physicians, veterinarians, the pet bird industry, and others concerned with controlling these diseases and protecting public health. The recommendations in this compendium provide standardized procedures to control C psittaci infections. This document will be reviewed and revised as necessary, and the most current version replaces all previous versions. This document was last revised in 2010. Major changes in this version include a recommendation for a shorter treatment time for birds with avian chlamydiosis, additional information about diagnostic testing, including genotyping, clearer language associated with personal protective equipment recommended for those caring for confirmed or exposed birds, and incorporating a grading scale with recommendations generally based on the United States Preventive Services Task Force's methods.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery}, author={Balsamo, G. and Maxted, A. M. and Midla, J. W. and Murphy, J. M. and Wohrle, R. and Edling, T. M. and Fish, P. H. and Flammer, K. and Hyde, D. and Kutty, P. K. and et al.}, year={2017}, pages={262–282} }
 @article{royal_flammer_2017, title={Survey Incentives in Medical Education: What Do Students Say Will Entice Them to Participate in Surveys?}, volume={27}, ISSN={2156-8650}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/S40670-017-0407-3}, DOI={10.1007/S40670-017-0407-3}, number={2}, journal={Medical Science Educator}, publisher={Springer Nature}, author={Royal, Kenneth D. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2017}, month={Mar}, pages={339–344} }
 @article{schoenfeld-tacher_royal_flammer_2016, title={Differences Among Veterinary Students’ and Faculty Members’ Perceptions of Appropriate Interactions with Corporate Entities at One US College of Veterinary Medicine}, volume={26}, ISSN={2156-8650}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/S40670-015-0213-8}, DOI={10.1007/S40670-015-0213-8}, number={1}, journal={Medical Science Educator}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, author={Schoenfeld-Tacher, Regina M. and Royal, Kenneth D. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2016}, month={Mar}, pages={35–38} }
 @article{kedrowicz_royal_flammer_2016, title={Social media and impression management: Veterinary Medicine students’ and faculty members’ attitudes toward the acceptability of social media posts}, volume={4}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism}, author={Kedrowicz, A.A. and Royal, K. and Flammer, K.}, year={2016}, pages={155–162} }
 @article{royal_schoenfeld-tacher_flammer_2015, title={Comparing Veterinary Student and Faculty Perceptions of Academic Misconduct}, volume={1}, ISSN={2380-9205 2380-9183}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/irhe.v1n1p81}, DOI={10.5430/irhe.v1n1p81}, abstractNote={A study was conducted to assess veterinary students’ and faculty perceptions of a variety of academic and classroom behaviors, and the degree to which these are acceptable or not. Two instruments were developed for this purpose: 1) The Exams and Assignments Scale (EAS), consisted of 23 items measuring the extent to which a variety of examination and assignment-related actions and behaviors constituted misconduct, and 2) The Classroom Behavior Scale (CBS), consisted of 8 items and measured the extent to which a variety of classroom behaviors were acceptable professional behaviors. Student responses were pooled for analysis and compared to faculty perceptions. This comparison resulted in statistically significant differences on 11 of the 23 EAS indicators. In all cases, faculty felt the described actions were more severe offenses than students with most of these discrepancies centering on situations regarding examinations and clinical skills. Both groups felt that offenses pertaining to cheating in exam settings were the most severe infractions, and the least severe issues pertained to laboratories/assignments and other out of class behaviors. On the CBS scale, there were statistically significant differences on 3 of the 8 measures, with faculty reporting the behaviors as less acceptable. The most concerning behaviors involved actions that could potentially impact people other than the offender, while the most acceptable behaviors seemed to only impact the person committing them.}, number={1}, journal={International Research in Higher Education}, publisher={Sciedu Press}, author={Royal, Kenneth D. and Schoenfeld-Tacher, Regina M. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2015}, month={Nov} }
 @article{royal_schoenfeld-tacher_kedrowicz_hardie_flammer_2015, title={Measuring Factors that Influence Decisions to Become a Veterinarian}, volume={4}, ISSN={2322-2719}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/rdme.2015.004}, DOI={10.15171/rdme.2015.004}, abstractNote={Introduction: Veterinary medical education; Psychometrics; Career influence; The purpose of the present study was twofold. First, we sought to evaluate the psychometric properties of a newly developed instrument designed to measure factors incoming veterinary medical students indicated were important (or not) in their decision to become a veterinarian. Second, we sought to produce a measure of these factors by utilizing a state-of-the-art psychometric modeling technique to produce an empirical hierarchy that illustrates the construct of interest and make appropriate inferences about the findings. Methods: The Career Influence Factors Survey (CIFS) was administered to an incoming class of veterinary medical students. Data were analyzed via the Rasch Rating Scale Model. The psychometric properties of the instrument were evaluated according to Messick’s framework of construct validity. Results: Results indicate the Career Influence Factors Survey is a psychometrically-sound instrument capable of accurately and reliably measuring veterinary medical students’ motivations for becoming a veterinarian. Substantive results indicated issues pertaining to animal welfare were the most important in making the decision to become a veterinarian. Previous exposure to a particular animal or family pet was only moderately influential in students’ decision to pursue a career in veterinary medicine. Factors such as a desire to work on food production issues and anticipated earning potential tend to be of lesser importance to incoming students. Conclusion: We encourage others to utilize the instrument and/or adopt the methodology to evaluate the psychometric properties of other instruments. Substantive findings generally corroborated findings from previous studies, but may identify new insights for improving the recruitment of veterinary medical students.}, number={1}, journal={Research and Development in Medical Education}, publisher={International Society for Phytocosmetic Sciences}, author={Royal, Kenneth D. and Schoenfeld-Tacher, Regina and Kedrowicz, April A. and Hardie, Elizabeth M. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2015}, month={Jul}, pages={23–29} }
 @article{flammer_massey_roudybush_meek_papich_2013, title={Assessment of Plasma Concentrations and Potential Adverse Effects of Doxycycline in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) Fed a Medicated Pelleted Diet}, volume={27}, ISSN={["1938-2871"]}, DOI={10.1647/1082-6742-27.3.187}, abstractNote={Doxycycline hyclate was mixed with soybean oil and then added to a low-fat pelleted diet that contained approximately 2.4% fat, which produced a final diet that contained a calculated 6.4% fat and 300 mg doxycycline per kilogram of diet. The medicated diet was fed to 9 healthy adult cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) for 47 days; a control group of 6 birds received the identical diet without doxycycline. Trough doxycycline plasma concentrations were measured 7 times during treatment and ranged from 0.98 to 3.83 microg/mL with an overall median of 2.09 microg/ mL. The birds were observed daily, weighed, and examined at least weekly, and selected plasma biochemical parameters were measured before treatment and at days 21 and 42. No adverse effects were noted, except one treatment bird became obese. This medicated diet may be suitable for treating spiral bacteria and Chlamydophila psittaci infections in cockatiels that will consume a pelleted diet.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Flammer, Keven and Massey, J. Gregory and Roudybush, Tom and Meek, Caroline J. and Papich, Mark G.}, year={2013}, month={Sep}, pages={187–193} }
 @article{guzman_flammer_paul-murphy_barker_tully_2011, title={Pharmacokinetics of Butorphanol after intravenous, intramuscular, and oral administration in hispaniolan amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis)}, volume={25}, DOI={10.1647/2009-054.1}, abstractNote={Abstract Previous studies have validated the clinical use of opioids with κ-receptor affinities for pain management in birds. Butorphanol, a κ opioid receptor agonist and a μ opioid receptor antagonist, is currently considered by many clinicians to be the opioid of choice for this use. However, despite studies reporting the analgesic properties of butorphanol in psittacine birds, dosing intervals have not been established for any psittacine species. The goals of this study in the Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (Amazona ventralis) were to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of butorphanol tartrate after intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), and oral (PO) administration and to determine the bioavailability of butorphanol tartrate after oral administration. Twelve Hispaniolan Amazon parrots were used in the study, with a complete-crossover experimental design and a 3-month period separating each part of the study. The birds were randomly assigned to 3 groups (n  =  4) for each stage. Butorphanol tartrate was administered once at a dose of 5 mg/kg in the basilic vein or pectoral muscles or as an oral solution delivered via feeding tube into the crop for the IV, IM, and PO studies, respectively. After butorphanol administration, blood samples were collected at 1, 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, and 240 minutes for the IV and IM studies and at 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240, and 300 minutes for the PO study. Because of the size limitation of the birds, naïve pooling of datum points was used to generate a mean plasma butorphanol concentration at each time point. For each study, birds in each group (n  =  4) were bled 3 times after dosing. Plasma butorphanol concentrations were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry, and pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated. Butorphanol tartrate was found to have high bioavailability and rapid elimination following IM administration. In contrast, oral administration resulted in low bioavailability (<10%), thus precluding the use of this route of administration for clinical purposes. Based on these results, in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots, butorphanol tartrate dosed at 5 mg/kg IV or IM would have to be administered every 2 and 3 hours, respectively, to maintain plasma concentrations consistent with published therapeutic levels. To our knowledge, this is the first published study presenting the pharmacokinetic analysis of butorphanol tartrate in a psittacine species as well as the first study presenting pharmacokinetic analysis of butorphanol after oral administration in any avian species.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery}, author={Guzman, D. S. M. and Flammer, K. and Paul-Murphy, J. R. and Barker, S. A. and Tully, T. N.}, year={2011}, pages={185–191} }
 @article{ratzlaff_papich_flammer_2011, title={Plasma Concentrations of Fluconazole After a Single Oral Dose and Administration in Drinking Water in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)}, volume={25}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/2009-044.1}, abstractNote={Abstract Candidiasis frequently affects the oropharynx, esophagus, and crop of juvenile birds with immature immune systems and adult birds that have received long-term antibiotic treatment. Fluconazole is used extensively in human medicine to treat mucosal and invasive candidiasis and has been used in birds; however, there have been few pharmacokinetic studies in avian species to guide safe and effective treatment. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the disposition of fluconazole in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) after single oral dose administration and to determine if therapeutic plasma concentrations could be safely achieved by providing medicated water. Twenty-eight cockatiels were placed into 7 groups and were orally administered a 10 mg/kg fluconazole suspension. Blood samples were collected from each group for plasma fluconazole assay at serial time points. Fluconazole-medicated drinking water was prepared daily and offered to 15 cockatiels at a concentration of 100 mg/L for 8 days. Blood was collected for plasma fluconazole assay at 2 time points on days 3 and 7. When using naïve averaged data in the single-dose study, pharmacokinetic parameters were similar for both compartmental and noncompartmental analyses. The elimination half-life of fluconazole was 19.01 hours, maximum plasma concentration was 4.94 μg/mL, time until maximal concentration was 3.42 hours, and the area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was 149.28 h × μg/mL. Computer-simulated trough and peak plasma concentrations at steady-state after multiple doses of fluconazole at 10 mg/kg every 24 hours, 10 mg/kg every 48 hours, and 5 mg/kg every 24 hours were approximately 4.1–8.5 μg/mL, 1.2–6.0 μg/mL, and 2.0–4.3 μg/mL, respectively. Mean ± SD plasma fluconazole concentrations for the 100 mg/L medicated water study at 0800 and 1600 hours on day 3 were 3.69 ± 1.22 µg/mL (range, 1.73–5.26 µg/mL) and 4.17 ± 1.96 µg/mL (range, 3.58–7.49 µg/mL), respectively, and at 0800 and 1600 hours on day 7 were 4.78 ± 0.91 µg/mL (range, 2.62–6.11 µg/mL) and 6.61 ± 1.67 µg/mL (range, 3.76–8.78 µg/mL), respectively. Treatment with fluconazole administered orally at a dosage of 5 mg/kg once daily or 10 mg/kg every 48 hours or fluconazole administered in the drinking water at a concentration of 100 mg/L is predicted to maintain plasma concentrations in most cockatiels that exceed the minimum inhibitory concentration of 90% or therapeutic AUC ∶ MIC of most strains of Candida albicans (by using susceptibility data from humans). The compounded oral suspension was stable for 14 days when stored at 5°C (41°F) and protected from light.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Ratzlaff, Katherine and Papich, Mark G. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2011}, month={Mar}, pages={23–31} }
 @article{guzman_diaz-figueroa_tully_ciembor_morgan_walden_poston_flammer_mitchell_ritchie_2010, title={Evaluating 21-day Doxycycline and Azithromycin Treatments for Experimental Chlamydophila psittaci Infection in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)}, volume={24}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/2009-009r.1}, abstractNote={Abstract To determine the efficacy of 21-day therapy with azithromycin and doxycycline in the treatment of experimental infection with Chlamydophila psittaci in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), 30 birds randomly assigned to 3 treatment groups and 1 control group were inoculated with C psittaci by combined intranasal and ocular routes. Morbidity, mortality, and results of polymerase chain reaction testing confirmed that infection was successful. Birds in group 1 (n  =  8) received azithromycin at 40 mg/kg PO q48h for 21 days; in group 2 (n  =  8), doxycycline at 35 mg/kg PO q24h for 21 days; in group 3 (n  =  8), doxycycline at 35 mg/kg PO q24h for 45 days; and, in group 4 (controls; n  =  6), no treatment. Six birds died either before or within 2 days of initiating treatment: 4 in the 3 treatment groups and 2 in the control group. Clinical signs resolved and mortality ceased 2–6 days after treatment was initiated in all treatment groups, whereas birds in the control group exhibited clinical signs for the duration of the study. Plasma doxycycline concentrations were measured during the treatment period and exceeded 1 µg/mL at all time points. The absence of clinical signs and mortality in the treatment groups, even after inducing an immunocompromised state with dexamethasone (3 mg/kg IM q24h for 5 days), starting on day 70 postinoculation, suggested that treatment resulted in elimination of the pathogen. After euthanasia of the remaining 24 birds, 23 of the carcasses were submitted for necropsy. Spleen and liver samples from the birds in all treatment and control groups were polymerase chain reaction negative for C psittaci nucleic acid, and organisms were not detected by Gimenez stain. No gross or histologic differences were observed in the livers and spleens of treated and untreated infected birds. Lesions consistent with avian chlamydiosis (hystiocytosis) were seen in all birds and were considered residual. In this study, a 21-day course of either doxycycline or azithromycin was effective in eliminating C psittaci infection in experimentally inoculated cockatiels. Additional studies are necessary to evaluate the efficacy of these treatments in naturally infected cockatiels as well as other species of birds.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Guzman, David Sanchez-Migallon and Diaz-Figueroa, Orlando and Tully, Thomas, Jr. and Ciembor, Paula and Morgan, Tim and Walden, Michael and Poston, Robert P. and Flammer, Keven and Mitchell, Mark A. and Ritchie, Branson}, year={2010}, month={Mar}, pages={35–45} }
 @article{guzman_flammer_papich_grooters_shaw_applegate_tully_2010, title={Pharmacokinetics of voriconazole after oral administration of single and multiple doses in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis)}, volume={71}, ISSN={["1943-5681"]}, DOI={10.2460/ajvr.71.4.460}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={4}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH}, author={Guzman, David Sanchez-Migallon and Flammer, Keven and Papich, Mark G. and Grooters, Amy M. and Shaw, Shannon and Applegate, Jeff and Tully, Thomas N., Jr.}, year={2010}, month={Apr}, pages={460–467} }
 @article{evans_netiffee-osborne_webb_jay_flammer_2009, title={Assessment of the Microbial Quality of Water Offered to Captive Psittacine Birds}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/2008-017R.1}, abstractNote={Abstract To investigate potential water-source microbes, 44 samples of water offered to individually caged psittacine birds were aseptically collected from 14 bird-owning households and evaluated for the presence of coliforms, Escherichia coli, heterotrophic bacteria, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. No samples were positive for E coli; however, 21 of 25 water samples (84%) from open containers and 7 of 19 samples (37%) from bottles exceeded US Environmental Protection Agency standards for coliforms. Fourteen of 24 open containers (58%) and 7 of 19 bottles (37%) grew heterotrophic bacteria that exceeded 500 colonies/ml. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from water samples from 1 open container and 1 bottle. These results suggest that potentially pathogenic bacteria can be found in water offered to companion psittacine birds. Additional studies are needed to assess whether these bacteria are clinically important causes of disease and to develop husbandry methods that will reduce contamination.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Evans, Erika E. and Netiffee-Osborne, Julie and Webb, Donna and Jay, Paula and Flammer, Keven}, year={2009}, month={Mar}, pages={10–17} }
 @article{evans_wade_flammer_2008, title={Administration of doxycycline in drinking water for treatment of spiral bacterial infection in cockatiels}, volume={232}, ISSN={["0003-1488"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.232.3.389}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={3}, journal={JAVMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Evans, Erika E. and Wade, Laura L. and Flammer, Keven}, year={2008}, month={Feb}, pages={389–393} }
 @article{flammer_nettifee osborne_webb_foster_dillard_davis_2008, title={Pharmacokinetics of voriconazole after oral administration of single and multiple doses in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus timneh)}, volume={69}, ISSN={0002-9645}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.69.1.114}, DOI={10.2460/ajvr.69.1.114}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={1}, journal={American Journal of Veterinary Research}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Flammer, Keven and Nettifee Osborne, Julie A. and Webb, Donna J. and Foster, Laura E. and Dillard, Stacy L. and Davis, Jennifer L.}, year={2008}, month={Jan}, pages={114–121} }
 @article{flammer_2006, title={Antibiotic drug selection in companion birds}, volume={15}, ISSN={["1557-5063"]}, DOI={10.1053/j.jepm.2006.06.003}, abstractNote={Abstract A variety of antibiotics are available for treating companion birds. Drug selection should consider pathogen susceptibility, the severity of illness, conditions at the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of selected drugs, potential drug toxicity, and the cost of treatment. The ability of the bird owner to comply with the recommended treatment regimen and the potential impact on the bird-owner bond must also be assessed. This article will review rational selection of an antibiotic and dosage regimen for treatment of common bacterial infections in companion birds.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF EXOTIC PET MEDICINE}, author={Flammer, Keven}, year={2006}, month={Jul}, pages={166–176} }
 @article{flammer_2006, title={Future directions in training veterinarians for companion avian species}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1943-7218"]}, DOI={10.3138/jvme.33.3.361}, abstractNote={Companion avian medicine has become a routine part of veterinary practice. More than 16 million companion birds are owned by approximately 6.4 million US households. This report outlines suggested undergraduate veterinary curricula, opportunities for post-graduate education, and options for training avian veterinarians.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICAL EDUCATION}, author={Flammer, Keven}, year={2006}, pages={361–364} }
 @article{flammer_papich_2006, title={Pharmacokinetics of fluconazole after oral administration of single and multiple doses in African grey parrots}, volume={67}, ISSN={["0002-9645"]}, DOI={10.2460/ajvr.67.3.417}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={3}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH}, author={Flammer, K and Papich, M}, year={2006}, month={Mar}, pages={417–422} }
 @article{flammer_papich_2005, title={Assessment of plasma concentrations and effects of injectable doxycycline in three psittacine species}, volume={19}, ISSN={["1938-2871"]}, DOI={10.1647/2004-007.1}, abstractNote={Abstract The disposition and effects of 2 formulations of injectable doxycycline administered at 100 mg/kg were investigated to determine if plasma concentrations considered adequate for treating avian chlamydiosis (1 μg/ml) could be safely maintained in 3 species of psittacine birds. Five orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica) that received a commercial doxycycline hyclate formulation (20 mg/ml) intramuscularly achieved maximum plasma doxycycline concentrations of 9.33 ± 0.82 μg/ml and maintained concentrations >1 μg/ml for 5 days. In a second trial, 8 orange-winged Amazon parrots and 8 Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffini) received micronized pharmacist-compounded doxycycline (75 mg/ml IM). In orange-winged Amazon parrots, maximum plasma doxycycline concentration was 2.54 ± 0.38 μg/ml, and concentrations of approximately 0.5 μg/ml were sustained from 24–168 hours. In Goffin's cockatoos, maximum plasma doxycycline concentration was 3.49 ± 0.18 μg/ml, and concentrations >1 μg/ml were maintained for at least 168 hours. In a third trial, groups (n = 4) of orange-winged Amazon parrots, Goffin's cockatoos, and timneh African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus timneh) received micronized pharmacist-compounded doxycycline (100 mg/ml IM); a separate group of timneh African grey parrots (n = 4) received the same dose subcutaneously. Plasma doxycycline concentrations were lower than in the second trial, and no group achieved 1 μg/ml. After 24 hours, concentrations were sustained at approximately 0.4–0.8 μg/ml in Goffin's cockatoos and at 0.3–0.4 μg/ml in orange-winged Amazon parrots and timneh African grey parrots for at least 20 days. No significant difference was found in doxycycline plasma concentrations in timneh African grey parrots injected subcutaneously as compared with those in parrots injected intramuscularly. Reaction at the injection site was observed in all birds receiving pharmacist-compounded doxycycline, including marked, persistent swelling at the intramuscular injection site and sloughing of skin and scab formation at subcutaneous injection sites. The results of this study show that both the efficacy and the severity of injection-site reactions seen with use of this particular formulation of pharmacist-compounded doxycycline may vary depending on the species treated and particular drug batch.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Flammer, K and Papich, M}, year={2005}, month={Sep}, pages={216–224} }
 @article{padilla_flammer_miller_2005, title={Doxycycline-medicated drinking water for treatment of Chlamydophila psittaci in exotic doves}, volume={19}, ISSN={["1938-2871"]}, DOI={10.1647/2003-034}, abstractNote={Abstract Chlamydophila psittaci was identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of choano–cloacal combination swabs collected from 9 of 15 fruit doves of different species. These birds were housed in close proximity to other individuals, and all birds were considered exposed to C psittaci infection. Group treatment was initiated by offering doxycycline hyclate in drinking water at 0.5 g/L for 45 days. During the treatment period, 18 fruit doves representing 4 species (including 5 birds that tested positive for C psittaci) were observed daily and weighed and examined weekly. Plasma doxycycline concentrations in these birds were measured at treatment days 3, 8, 14, 21, 35, and 42. Lacrimo–choanal–cloacal combination swabs were collected for C psittaci PCR testing at 5, 10, and 15 days after treatment ended. No adverse effects of treatment were observed. Mean plasma doxycycline concentration for all samples was 1.56 ± 1.3 μg/ml. After treatment, all 18 selected birds tested negative for C psittaci. Also, C psittaci was not detected in 49 additional lacrimo–choanal– cloacal combination swabs collected from the larger group of exposed birds during a 6-month period after treatment. The results of this study suggest that doxycycline-medicated drinking water may offer a safe, inexpensive, and practical method to treat fruit doves infected with C psittaci.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Padilla, LR and Flammer, K and Miller, RE}, year={2005}, month={Jun}, pages={88–91} }
 @article{de voe_trogdon_flammer_2004, title={Preliminary assessment of the effect of diet and L-carnitine supplementation on lipoma size and bodyweight in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)}, volume={18}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/2002-031}, abstractNote={Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of diet and L-carnitine supplementation on lipoma size and bodyweight in adult budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Seventeen budgerigars with naturally occurring cervical lipomas and 15 without lipomas were assigned to groups (4–6 birds/group) and fed 1 of 3 diets for a period of 102 days. The diets fed were a 100% seed mixture, a commercially produced low-fat pelleted diet, and the same pelleted diet supplemented with approximately 1000 mg/kg L-carnitine. Birds receiving pellets were also offered a small amount of seed to improve acceptance. Bodyweight and lipoma size were recorded for each bird at 2- to 4-week intervals. Bodyweight increased in all budgerigars (with and without lipomas) receiving 100%-seed diets. Of these birds, 83% gained >10% of their initial bodyweight. Lipoma size decreased in budgerigars that were fed the pelleted diet supplemented with L-carnitine. These data suggest that feeding a 100%-seed diet may result in inappropriate weight gain in budgerigars and that the use of L-carnitine supplementation in the management of lipomas deserves further investigation.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={De Voe, RS and Trogdon, M and Flammer, K}, year={2004}, month={Mar}, pages={12–18} }
 @article{flammer_trogdon_papich_2003, title={Assessment of plasma concentrations of doxycycline in budgerigars fed medicated seed or water}, volume={223}, ISSN={["0003-1488"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.2003.223.993}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={7}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Flammer, K and Trogdon, MM and Papich, M}, year={2003}, month={Oct}, pages={993–998} }
 @article{hoppes_flammer_hoersch_papich_paul-murphy_2003, title={Disposition and analgesic cockatoos effects of fentanyl in white (Cacatua alba)}, volume={17}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/2002-008}, abstractNote={Abstract Fentanyl is a mu opioid agonist with 80–100 times the analgesic potency of morphine. Fentanyl is used in several mammalian species for relief of severe pain, but its use has not been investigated in psittacine birds. To determine the pharmacologic disposition of fentanyl in healthy white cockatoos (Cacatua alba), we measured fentanyl plasma concentrations in sequentially collected samples after administration of fentanyl at 0.01 or 0.02 mg/kg IM. To investigate the analgesic effects of fentanyl in conscious cockatoos, we compared the change in pre- and posttreatment levels of electrical and thermal noxious stimuli necessary to elicit a withdrawal response in birds administered fentanyl at 2 different doses (0.02 mg/kg IM or 0.2 mg/kg SC) and those given saline. Fentanyl was rapidly absorbed and plasma concentrations declined with an elimination half-life of 1.2–1.4 hours. Plasma concentrations considered to be analgesic in humans were maintained for at least 2 hours with the 0.02 mg/kg dose. However, no significant difference was found in analgesic response between birds given saline and those given fentanyl at 0.02 mg/kg IM. Although the 0.2 mg/kg SC dose provided significant analgesia in some birds, fentanyl at this dose is not recommended as a routine analgesic agent because a large volume of drug must be injected and this dose causes hyperactivity in some birds.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Hoppes, S and Flammer, K and Hoersch, K and Papich, M and Paul-Murphy, J}, year={2003}, month={Sep}, pages={124–130} }
 @inproceedings{de voe_flammer_degernes_burkhard_2002, title={Blood lactate: potential applications in avian medicine}, booktitle={Proceedings Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians}, author={De Voe, R. and Flammer, K. and Degernes, L. and Burkhard, M. J.}, year={2002}, pages={19–22} }
 @article{flammer_whitt-smith_2002, title={Plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin in psittacine birds offered water medicated with 200 mg/L of the injectable formulation of enrofloxacin}, volume={16}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/1082-6742(2002)016[0286:pcoeip]2.0.co;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Enrofloxacin is commonly used to treat bacterial infections in psittacine birds. Enrofloxacin is most effective if dosed per os or by injection, but can be delivered via medicated drinking water. The purpose of this project was to measure the plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin achieved by offering drinking water medicated with an injectable enrofloxacin formulation at 200 mg/L to 16 psittacine birds for 10 days. The birds included 6 cockatoos (Cacatua species), 4 conures (Aratinga species), 2 Senegal parrots (Poicephalus senegalus), 2 red-shouldered macaws (Ara nobilis), and 2 grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). The injectable formulation was selected because it is readily available in most veterinary hospitals. Blood samples for plasma enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin assay were collected at 1600–1730 hours on treatment days 2 and 4 and 0830–1000 hours on days 6 and 8. Mean plasma enrofloxacin concentrations (± SD) ranged from 0.11 ± 0.05 to 2.00 ± 1.43 μg/ml for each bird and were 0.40 μg/ml or less for 14 of 16 birds. Ciprofloxacin concentrations were below the limits of detection for all but 2 samples. This study shows that water medicated with the injectable formulation of enrofloxacin at 200 mg/L maintains plasma concentrations in psittacine birds that are adequate only for treating systemic infections caused by highly susceptible bacteria.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Flammer, K and Whitt-Smith, D}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={286–290} }
 @article{edling_degernes_flammer_horne_2001, title={Capnographic monitoring of anesthetized African grey parrots receiving intermittent positive pressure ventilation}, volume={219}, ISSN={["0003-1488"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.2001.219.1714}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={12}, journal={JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Edling, TM and Degernes, LA and Flammer, K and Horne, VA}, year={2001}, month={Dec}, pages={1714–1718} }
 @article{flammer_whitt-smith_papich_2001, title={Plasma concentrations of doxycycline in selected psittacine birds when administered in water for potential treatment of Chlamydophila psittaci infection}, volume={15}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/1082-6742(2001)015[0276:PCODIS]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Infection by Chlamydophila psittaci (formerly Chlamydia psittaci) is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in companion psittacine birds and is transmissible to humans. Replication of Chlamydophila is inhibited by plasma doxycycline concentrations greater than 1 μg/ml, but prolonged treatment periods of 30–45 days are needed to eliminate infection. Medication of birds for this prolonged period is difficult with current treatment methods. In this study, drinking water medicated with doxycycline hyclate at 800 mg/L was provided ad libitum to healthy African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus timneh) and Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffini) for 42 days. Blood samples for doxycycline analysis were collected on treatment days 4, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42. Mean doxycycline concentrations exceeded 1 μg/ml throughout the 42-day treatment period. In the African grey parrots, the mean doxycycline concentration (± SD) for all plasma samples collected during the study was 1.51 ± 0.68 μg/ml and doxycycline concentrations were greater than 1 μg/ml in 73% of the samples. In the Goffin's cockatoos, the overall mean was 2.78 ± 1.00 μg/ml and doxycycline concentrations exceeded 1 μg/ml in all samples. No adverse effects were noted in the African grey parrots. All of the 8 treated Goffin's cockatoos were physically healthy, but changes in plasma biochemical analyses suggested mild hepatic damage in 3 birds. Results of plasma biochemical analyses in these cockatoos were within reference ranges when retested 7 days after doxycycline treatment ended. The results of this study suggest that doxycycline-medicated water can safely maintain plasma concentrations adequate for treating avian Chlamydophila infections in African grey parrots and Goffin's cockatoos housed under standardized conditions.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Flammer, K and Whitt-Smith, D and Papich, M}, year={2001}, month={Dec}, pages={276–282} }
 @article{hoppes_gurfield_flammer_colitz_fisher_2000, title={Mycotic keratitis in a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva)}, volume={14}, ISSN={["1082-6742"]}, DOI={10.1647/1082-6742(2000)014[0185:MKIABF]2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Mycotic keratitis is most commonly reported in horses and humans and is rarely reported in birds. We diagnosed mycotic keratitis, localized to the left eye, in an adult blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva). The ophthalmic examination revealed a diffuse yellow-green haze encompassing the entire surface of the left cornea. Diffuse fluorescein uptake occurred in the entire cornea. The right eye appeared normal. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated on conjunctival culture. The affected eye was enucleated because of the bird's discomfort and the poor prognosis for successful treatment. Histopathologic examination revealed a severe granulomatous keratitis with intracorneal fungal hyphae and corneal perforation. Multinucleated giant cells and fungal hyphae were present within the anterior chamber. Aspergillus fumigatus is an uncommon cause of keratitis in birds but should be considered as a potential cause of refractory ulcers.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY}, author={Hoppes, S and Gurfield, N and Flammer, K and Colitz, C and Fisher, P}, year={2000}, month={Sep}, pages={185–189} }
 @article{powers_flammer_papich_2000, title={Preliminary investigation of doxycycline plasma concentrations in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) after administration by injection or in water or feed}, volume={14}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery}, author={Powers, L. V. and Flammer, K. and Papich, M.}, year={2000}, pages={23–30} }
 @article{flammer_1999, title={Use of enrofloxacin (Baytril(R)) in psittacine birds}, volume={21}, number={12}, journal={Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian}, author={Flammer, K.}, year={1999}, pages={107} }
 @inbook{flammer_1999, title={Zoonoses acquired from birds}, booktitle={Zoo & wild animal medicine: Current therapy (4th ed.)}, publisher={Philadelphia, Pa.: W.B. Saunders}, author={Flammer, K.}, editor={M. E. Fowler and Miller, R. E.Editors}, year={1999}, pages={151–156} }
 @article{degernes_trasti_healy_spaulding_flammer_romagnano_1998, title={Multicystic biliary adenocarcinoma in a blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna)}, volume={12}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery}, author={Degernes, L. A. and Trasti, S. and Healy, L. N. and Spaulding, K. A. and Flammer, K. and Romagnano, A.}, year={1998}, pages={100–107} }
 @article{flammer_1998, title={Twenty years of progress in pet bird research}, volume={212}, number={8}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, author={Flammer, K.}, year={1998}, pages={1231–1233} }
 @inbook{flammer_1997, title={Chlamydia}, booktitle={Avian medicine and surgery}, publisher={Philadelphia: Saunders}, author={Flammer, K.}, year={1997}, pages={364–379} }
 @article{lewbart_vaden_deen_manaugh_whitt_doi_smith_flammer_1997, title={Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in the red pacu (Colossoma brachypomum) after intramuscular, oral and bath administration}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0140-7783"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1365-2885.1997.00814.x}, abstractNote={The intramuscular (i.m.), oral (p.o.), and bath immersion disposition of enrofloxacin were evaluated following administration to a cultured population of red pacu. The half‐life for enrofloxacin following i.m. administration was 28.9 h, considerably longer than values calculated for other animals such as dogs, birds, rabbits, and tortoises. The 4 h maximum concentration (Cmax) of 1.64 μg/mL following a single 5.0 mg/kg dosing easily exceeds the in vitro minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for 20 bacterial organisms known to infect fish. At 48 h post i.m. administration, the mean plasma enrofloxacin concentration was well above the MIC for most gram‐negative fish pathogens. The gavage method of oral enrofloxacin administration produced a Cmax of 0.94 μg/mL at 6–8 h. This Cmax was well above the reported in vitro MIC. A bath immersion concentration of 2.5 mg/L for 5 h was used in this study. The Cmax of 0.17 μg/mL was noted on the 2 hour post‐treatment plasma sample. Plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin exceeded published in vitro MIC’s for most fish bacterial pathogens 72 h after treatment was concluded. Ciprofloxacin, an active metabolite of enrofloxacin, was detected and measured after all methods of drug administration. It is possible and practical to obtain therapeutic blood concentrations of enrofloxacin in the red pacu using p.o., i.m., and bath immersion administration. The i.m. route is the most predictable and results in the highest plasma concentrations of the drug.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS}, author={Lewbart, G and Vaden, S and Deen, J and Manaugh, C and Whitt, D and Doi, A and Smith, T and Flammer, K}, year={1997}, month={Apr}, pages={124–128} }
 @inproceedings{degernes_davidson_kolmstetter_flammer_munger_1992, title={Preliminary report on the use of total parenteral nutrition in birds}, booktitle={Proceedings Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians}, author={Degernes, L. A. and Davidson, G. S. and Kolmstetter, C. and Flammer, K. and Munger, L.}, year={1992}, pages={19–20} }
 @article{flammer_aucoin_whitt_1991, title={INTRAMUSCULAR AND ORAL DISPOSITION OF ENROFLOXACIN IN AFRICAN GRAY PARROTS FOLLOWING SINGLE AND MULTIPLE DOSES}, volume={14}, ISSN={["0140-7783"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2885.1991.tb00849.x}, abstractNote={The intramuscular (IM) and oral (PO) disposition of enrofloxacin, a new fluoroquinolone antimicrobial drug, were evaluated in African grey parrots. Peak enrofloxacin concentration, mean (± SEM), at 1h following a 15‐mg/kg IM dose was 3.87 (± 0.27) μg/ml and declined with a mean residence time of 3.05 h. Peak enrofloxacin plasma concentrations at 2 to 4h following oral doses of 3, 15, and 30 mg/kg were 0.31 (± 0.11), 1.12 (± 0.11), and 1.69 (± 0.23) μg/ml, respectively, and declined with a mean residence time of 3.44‐5.28 h. The relative bioavailability of the 15‐mg/kg oral dose was 48%. An equipotent metabolite, ciprofloxacin, was detected in plasma at concentrations ranging from 3 to 78% of those of enrofloxacin. Enrofloxacin concentrations and area under the curve were significantly lower, the mean residence time significantly shorter and the ciprofloxacin/enrofloxacin ratios higher, following 10 days of oral treatment at 30 mg/kg every 12 h. Following 10 days of treatment, no significant biochemical changes were noted; however, polydipsia and polyuria occurred in treated birds, but resolved quickly upon discontinuation of enrofloxacin administration. These studies indicate that a rational starting dose for enrofloxacin in psittacines (7.5‐30 mg/kg BID) should be higher than those in other domestic animals.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS}, author={FLAMMER, K and AUCOIN, DP and WHITT, DA}, year={1991}, month={Dec}, pages={359–366} }
 @article{flammer_aucoin_whitt_prus_1990, title={PLASMA-CONCENTRATIONS OF ENROFLOXACIN IN AFRICAN GRAY PARROTS TREATED WITH MEDICATED WATER}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1938-4351"]}, DOI={10.2307/1591399}, abstractNote={Plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin were measured four times during a 7-day treatment period in African grey parrots that were fed with enrofloxacin-medicated drinking water. Water medicated at doubling doses of 0.09, 0.19, 0.38, 0.75, 1.5, and 3.0 mg/ml achieved mean concentrations (+/- SEM) of 0.10 (+/- 0.05), 0.12 (+/- 0.05), 0.12 (+/- 0.03), 0.15 (+/- 0.05), 0.30 (+/- 0.11), and 0.20 (+/- 0.06) micrograms/ml, respectively. A portion of the administered enrofloxacin was metabolized to an equipotent metabolite, ciprofloxacin. Mean ciprofloxacin concentrations paralleled enrofloxacin concentrations but were lower, ranging from 0.04 to 0.27 micrograms/ml. Acceptance of medicated water was adequate at lower doses; however, at doses of 1.5 and 3.0 mg/ml, acceptance was unsatisfactory, and mean weight loss in these groups was significantly higher than the control group. Based on the concentrations achieved in these preliminary trials and the susceptibility patterns of gram-negative bacteria isolated from psittacine birds, drinking water medicated with enrofloxacin at 0.19-0.75 mg/ml might be effective for treating highly susceptible gram-negative bacterial infections in African grey parrots.}, number={4}, journal={AVIAN DISEASES}, author={FLAMMER, K and AUCOIN, DP and WHITT, DA and PRUS, SA}, year={1990}, pages={1017–1022} }
 @article{flammer_aucoin_whitt_styles_1990, title={POTENTIAL USE OF LONG-ACTING INJECTABLE OXYTETRACYCLINE FOR TREATMENT OF CHLAMYDIOSIS IN GOFFIN COCKATOOS}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1938-4351"]}, DOI={10.2307/1591359}, abstractNote={To determine the potential use of parenteral therapy in the treatment of chlamydiosis in psittacine birds, the disposition and toxicity of a long-acting oxytetracycline (OTC) was evaluated in Goffin's cockatoos. Following intramuscular and subcutaneous administration of 50 to 100 mg/kg body weight, plasma OTC concentrations of 7 to 15 micrograms/ml were obtained 3 hr following injection and declined with a terminal half-life between 8.9 to 14.7 hr. Plasma concentrations in excess of 1.0 microgram/ml were maintained for 48 to 68 hr. Multiple-dose treatment of 100 mg/kg subcutaneously every 3 days for 30 days caused focal necrosis and scabs at the injection site but no other clinical or serological evidence of adverse effects. Long-term treatment did not result in accumulation or alteration in the disposition of OTC. Based on this study, a dosage regimen of 50 to 100 mg/kg of OTC subcutaneously every 2-3 days would safely maintain plasma concentrations in excess of 1.0 microgram/ml and could potentially be used as an alternative to medicated feeds or daily oral dosing regimens for the treatment of chlamydiosis in psittacine birds.}, number={1}, journal={AVIAN DISEASES}, author={FLAMMER, K and AUCOIN, DP and WHITT, DA and STYLES, DK}, year={1990}, pages={228–234} }