@article{cho_baker-ward_smith_barfield_docherty_2021, title={Human Flourishing in Adolescents with Cancer: Experiences of Pediatric Oncology Health Care Professionals}, volume={59}, ISSN={["0882-5963"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.pedn.2020.12.012}, abstractNote={Purpose This study explores human flourishing (HF) in adolescents with cancer (AC) as witnessed by their health care providers, and it develops a list of critical attributes associated with HF to describe the positive outcomes witnessed. Design and Methods Our study used a qualitative descriptive design incorporating data from an open-ended electronic survey and semi-structured individual interviews with 17 pediatric oncology health care providers. Results We found 3 major themes (positive forward motion, connectedness, and self-character) representing 11 critical attributes of human flourishing in AC: (1) initiative and enterprise, (2) positivity and evocativeness, (3) tranquility and maturity, (4) perseverance and tenacity, (5) compassion and empathy, (6) social engagement and connection, (7) wisdom and translation into life, (8) supportive background, (9) self-awareness and self-agency, (10) transcendence and full potential, and (11) meaning-making. Conclusions Understanding the concept of HF as it applies to the needs of AC is a step toward establishing it as a comprehensive health care goal and toward developing care provider guidelines for its promotion. Practice Implications Given the attributes of HF in AC, nurses can consider HF as an ultimate nursing care outcome and should focus on goals of care beyond disease treatment and symptoms mitigation when providing care for this population. Holistic, individualized assessment, timely care during each phase of treatment, and developmentally tailored intervention should be provided.}, journal={JOURNAL OF PEDIATRIC NURSING-NURSING CARE OF CHILDREN & FAMILIES}, author={Cho, Eunji and Baker-Ward, Lynne E. and Smith, Sophia K. and Barfield, Raymond C. and Docherty, Sharron L.}, year={2021}, pages={10–18} }
 @article{baker-ward_tyler_coffman_merritt_ornstein_2020, title={Children's expectations and episodic reports over 12 weeks: Influences on memory for a specially designed pediatric examination}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1099-0720"]}, DOI={10.1002/acp.3619}, abstractNote={This investigation extended work on the linkage between knowledge and remembering by exploring the relation between generic and episodic memory representations. Thirty 6-year-old children experienced a mock physical examination with some expected components omitted and other unexpected actions included. Immediately and again after 12 weeks, the children reported the event, answered questions about what usually happens in an examination, and rated their confidence in aspects of their reports. They remembered more typical than atypical present components, that is, those included in the examination, and, over time, falsely reported more typical than atypical actions. The children produced intrusions of expected-but-omitted medical features at the delay but with lower confidence ratings than they provided for correctly recalled items. Performance on a source monitoring task was associated with aspects of the children's confidence ratings for intrusions. The findings provide evidence that the relation between episodic and generic representations is dynamic and suggest that the capacity to differentiate between them contributes to the development of accurate eyewitness memory.}, number={2}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Baker-Ward, Lynne and Tyler, Caroline Staneck and Coffman, Jennifer L. and Merritt, Kathy A. and Ornstein, Peter A.}, year={2020}, month={Mar}, pages={330–342} }
 @article{bauer_baker-ward_krojgaard_peterson_wang_2019, title={Evidence Against Depiction as Fiction: A Comment on "Fictional First Memories" (Akhtar, Justice, Morrison, & Conway, 2018)}, ISBN={1467-9280}, DOI={10.1177/0956797619834510}, journal={PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE}, author={Bauer, Patricia J. and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Krojgaard, Peter and Peterson, Carole and Wang, Qi}, year={2019} }
 @article{kayle_tanabe_shah_baker-ward_docherty_2016, title={Challenges in Shifting Management Responsibility From Parents to Adolescents With Sickle Cell Disease}, volume={31}, ISSN={["0882-5963"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.pedn.2016.06.008}, abstractNote={This study explored the challenges faced by adolescents with sickle cell disease (SCD) and their parents and the work they engage in to progressively shift from parent management to independent adolescent self-management.A qualitative descriptive focus-group design with semi-structured interviews was used with adolescents (11-18 years) with SCD (HbSS genotype) and their parents/primary caregivers. Interviews were analyzed using content analysis.Two adolescent focus groups, with a total of 14 adolescents, and two parent focus groups, with a total of 15 parents, described adaptive challenges. Adolescents' adaptive challenges included mastering complex symptom management, communicating about SCD and symptoms, and maintaining control. Parents' adaptive challenges included giving over the complex management, communicating the management with the adolescent, balancing protection against risk with fostering independence, changing a comfortable rhythm, and releasing the adolescent into an "SCD-naive" world. Adolescents' adaptive work included pushing back at parents, defaulting back to parental care, stepping up with time, learning how SCD affects them, and educating friends about SCD. Parents' adaptive work included engaging the adolescent in open dialogue and co-managing with the adolescent.Shifting management responsibility from parents to adolescents imposes adaptive challenges for both. Future research is needed to develop and test interventions that improve adaptive capacity in adolescents and parents.Health care providers need to assess the parent-child relationship and their progress in shifting the management responsibility, facilitate discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the challenges, and collaborate on adaptive work to address these challenges.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF PEDIATRIC NURSING-NURSING CARE OF CHILDREN & FAMILIES}, author={Kayle, Mariam and Tanabe, Paula and Shah, Nirmish R. and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Docherty, Sharron L.}, year={2016}, pages={678–690} }
 @article{peterson_baker-ward_grovenstein_2016, title={Childhood remembered: Reports of both unique and repeated events}, volume={24}, ISSN={["1464-0686"]}, DOI={10.1080/09658211.2014.1001991}, abstractNote={To explore the significance of repeated memories for individuals' personal histories, we compared the characteristics of young adults' unique and repeated memories of childhood experiences. Memory type (unique vs. repeated) was a within-participant variable. In Experiment 1, college-age participants generated as many early memories as possible in 4 minutes; in Experiment 2, another sample provided complete reports of five early memories in each condition. In both experiments, participants rated the vividness, biographical importance and personal meaning of each memory and labelled the accompanying emotion. Unique memories were more vivid than repeated memories as well as more likely to include negative emotion, regardless of the method of reporting. Most importantly, college students rated their memories for unique and repeated events as equivalently infused with personal meaning. Analysis of the content of the memories reported in Experiment 2 established that unique and repeated memories did not differ in word count or percentages of perceptual terms or words indicating positive affect, although unique memories contained a greater percentage of negative affect. Additional analyses of content provided evidence for differences in the functions served by unique and repeated memories. The results have implications for the study of autobiographical memory and for identifying over-general memories.}, number={2}, journal={MEMORY}, author={Peterson, Carole and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Grovenstein, Tiffany N.}, year={2016}, month={Feb}, pages={240–256} }
 @article{esposito_baker-ward_2016, title={Immigration, language proficiency, and autobiographical memories: Lifespan distribution and second-language access}, volume={24}, ISSN={["1464-0686"]}, DOI={10.1080/09658211.2015.1061010}, abstractNote={This investigation examined two controversies in the autobiographical literature: how cross-language immigration affects the distribution of autobiographical memories across the lifespan and under what circumstances language-dependent recall is observed. Both Spanish/English bilingual immigrants and English monolingual non-immigrants participated in a cue word study, with the bilingual sample taking part in a within-subject language manipulation. The expected bump in the number of memories from early life was observed for non-immigrants but not immigrants, who reported more memories for events surrounding immigration. Aspects of the methodology addressed possible reasons for past discrepant findings. Language-dependent recall was influenced by second-language proficiency. Results were interpreted as evidence that bilinguals with high second-language proficiency, in contrast to those with lower second-language proficiency, access a single conceptual store through either language. The final multi-level model predicting language-dependent recall, including second-language proficiency, age of immigration, internal language, and cue word language, explained ¾ of the between-person variance and 1/5 of the within-person variance. We arrive at two conclusions. First, major life transitions influence the distribution of memories. Second, concept representation across multiple languages follows a developmental model. In addition, the results underscore the importance of considering language experience in research involving memory reports.}, number={7}, journal={MEMORY}, author={Esposito, Alena G. and Baker-Ward, Lynne}, year={2016}, pages={949–960} }
 @article{baker-ward_quinonez_milano_lee_langley_brumley_ornstein_2015, title={Predicting Children's Recall of a Dental Procedure: Contributions of Stress, Preparation, and Dental History}, volume={29}, ISSN={["1099-0720"]}, DOI={10.1002/acp.3152}, abstractNote={We examined the extent to which three predictors of children's recall, selected on the basis of their theoretical significance, contributed to the prediction of children's recall for the details of dental operative procedures in a diverse sample of 28 children (54–140 months of age). Parents provided information regarding their children's dental histories and preparation for the dental visit. We obtained behavioral indices of stress from video recordings of the procedures and interviewed the children shortly after treatment to assess their memory. In a significant model predicting open-ended recall, measures of prior dental experience and parent discussion emerged as unique predictors, although stress did not add to the prediction. The results attest to the importance of incorporating measures of individual differences in investigations of children's reports of their personal experiences. We discuss the importance of children's interpretations in understanding memory for stressful events.Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.}, number={5}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Baker-Ward, Lynne and Quinonez, Rocio and Milano, Michael and Lee, Seungjin and Langley, Hillary and Brumley, Benjamin and Ornstein, Peter A.}, year={2015}, pages={775–781} }
 @article{peterson_morris_baker-ward_flynn_2014, title={Predicting Which Childhood Memories Persist: Contributions of Memory Characteristics}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1939-0599"]}, DOI={10.1037/a0033221}, abstractNote={This investigation identified memory-level predictors of the survivability of 4- to 13-year-old children's earliest recollections over a 2-year period. Data previously reported by Peterson, Warren, and Short (2011) were coded for inclusion of emotion terms and thematic, chronological, and contextual narrative coherence. In addition, the uniqueness and content of the reported events were classified, and the presence or absence of event reminders was recorded. The use of logistic multilevel modeling indicated that emotion and each dimension of coherence added to the prediction of a memory's survivability over and above age-related variance. In contrast, event uniqueness, content category, reminders, and word count were not associated with retention. The findings help explain why particular early memories endure over time.}, number={2}, journal={DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Peterson, Carole and Morris, Gwynn and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Flynn, Susan}, year={2014}, month={Feb}, pages={439–448} }
 @article{esposito_baker-ward_2013, title={Dual-Language Education for Low-Income Children: Preliminary Evidence of Benefits for Executive Function}, volume={36}, ISSN={1523-5882 1523-5890}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2013.837848}, DOI={10.1080/15235882.2013.837848}, abstractNote={This investigation is an initial examination of possible enhancement of executive function through a dual-language (50:50) education model. The ethnically diverse, low-income sample of 120 children from Grades K, 2, and 4 consisted of approximately equal numbers of children enrolled in dual-language and traditional classrooms. Dual-language students in Grades 2 and 4 performed better on a measure from the Trail Making Task requiring inhibition and rule-switching. The results indicate that the established benefits of bilingual exposure can be generalized across SES and ethnicity and can be acquired within the context of elementary school programs.}, number={3}, journal={Bilingual Research Journal}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Esposito, Alena G. and Baker-Ward, Lynne}, year={2013}, month={Oct}, pages={295–310} }
 @article{nesbitt_baker-ward_willoughby_2013, title={Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement}, volume={28}, ISSN={["1873-7706"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.005}, abstractNote={Although associations between socio-economic status, race, and academic achievement are well established, the specific mechanisms that underlie the relation remain incompletely understood. This longitudinal investigation, involving a sample of 206 children from economically and racially diverse backgrounds, examined the influence of executive function and expressive vocabulary assessed in kindergarten on academic achievement in Grade 1. The use of structural equation modeling revealed that both SES and race had indirect effects on achievement test scores through their effects on executive function, even when accounting for differences in expressive vocabulary. As expected, executive function was more strongly related to math than literacy achievement. The results provide support for the importance of targeting executive skills and intervening early in efforts to improve academic performance in young children. Moreover, the findings suggest that improving executive function may mitigate the impact of social risk factors on academic achievement.}, number={4}, journal={EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY}, author={Nesbitt, Kimberly Turner and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Willoughby, Michael T.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={774–783} }
 @article{styers_baker-ward_2013, title={Finding the light at the end of the tunnel: Age differences in the relation between internal states terms and coping with potential threats to self}, volume={21}, ISSN={["0965-8211"]}, DOI={10.1080/09658211.2012.705849}, abstractNote={Previous research has examined how adults respond to negative self-evaluations, but has not explored developmental differences in this process. This cross-sectional study investigated linkages between the inclusion of internal states language in narrative accounts of problems in important self-categories and reports of coping responses and troubling thoughts. There were a total of 160 participants at three age levels: late childhood (9–12 years old), early adolescence (12–15 years old) and emerging adulthood (18–28 years old). Age-related changes were found in the density of internal states language and its relation to coping strategies. Among the children, greater usage of positive emotion terms predicted less adaptive use of coping strategies. In contrast, among the adolescents, greater density of positive emotion terms and anxiety terms was associated with more assistance seeking, and greater use of anger terms was related to lower levels of intrusive and avoidant thoughts. Finally, among the emerging adults, a greater density of insight terms was associated with higher levels of intrusive thoughts. The findings are interpreted as indicating unique responses to self-threat at different points in the development of the self-concept. Further, they have implications for understanding inconsistent past findings regarding the relation between internal states language usage and well-being.}, number={1}, journal={MEMORY}, author={Styers, Mary Koenig and Baker-Ward, Lynne}, year={2013}, month={Jan}, pages={27–43} }
 @article{esposito_baker-ward_mueller_2013, title={Interference suppression vs. response inhibition: An explanation for the absence of a bilingual advantage in preschoolers' Stroop task performance}, volume={28}, ISSN={["1879-226X"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.09.002}, abstractNote={The well-documented advantage that bilingual speakers demonstrate across the lifespan on measures of controlled attention is not observed in preschoolers' performance on Stroop task variations. We examined the role of task demands in explaining this discrepancy. Whereas the Color/Word Stroop used with adult participants requires interference suppression, the Stroop task typically used with preschoolers requires only response inhibition. We developed an age-appropriate conflict task that measures interference suppression. Fifty-one preschool children (26 bilinguals) completed this new Color/Shape task and the Day/Night task used in previous research. Bilingual in comparison to monolingual children performed better on incongruent trials of the Color/Shape task, but did not differ on other measures. The results indicate that the discrepancy between preschoolers and older individuals in performance on Stroop task adaptations results from characteristics of the task rather than developmental differences. Further, the findings provide additional support for the importance of interference suppression as a mechanism underlying the bilingual advantage.}, number={4}, journal={COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT}, author={Esposito, Alena G. and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Mueller, Shane T.}, year={2013}, pages={354–363} }
 @article{brown_morris_nida_baker-ward_2012, title={Brief Report: Making Experience Personal: Internal States Language in the Memory Narratives of Children with and Without Asperger's Disorder}, volume={42}, ISSN={["1573-3432"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10803-011-1246-5}, abstractNote={The development of the personal past is complex, requiring the operation of multiple components of cognitive and social functioning. Because many of these components are affected by autism spectrum disorders, it is likely that autobiographical memory in children with Asperger’s Disorder (AD) will be impaired. We predicted that the memory narratives of children with AD, in comparison to typically-developing peers, would reflect less personal interpretation as evidenced by internal states language. Thirty children with AD and 20 typically-developing children aged 6–14 reported their earliest memories and two emotional experiences (one positive and one negative). Consistent with our predictions, children with AD included fewer emotional, cognitive, and perceptual terms than the comparison sample.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AUTISM AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS}, author={Brown, Benjamin T. and Morris, Gwynn and Nida, Robert E. and Baker-Ward, Lynne}, year={2012}, month={Mar}, pages={441–446} }
 @article{reese_haden_baker-ward_bauer_fivush_ornstein_2011, title={Coherence of Personal Narratives Across the Lifespan: A Multidimensional Model and Coding Method}, volume={12}, ISSN={["1532-7647"]}, DOI={10.1080/15248372.2011.587854}, abstractNote={Personal narratives are integral to autobiographical memory and to identity, with coherent personal narratives being linked to positive developmental outcomes across the lifespan. In this article, we review the theoretical and empirical literature that sets the stage for a new lifespan model of personal narrative coherence. This new model integrates context, chronology, and theme as essential dimensions of personal narrative coherence, each of which relies upon different developmental achievements and has a different developmental trajectory across the lifespan. A multidimensional method of coding narrative coherence (the Narrative Coherence Coding Scheme) was derived from the model and is described here. The utility of this approach is demonstrated by its application to 498 narratives that were collected in six laboratories from participants ranging in age from 3 years old to adulthood. The value of the model is illustrated further by a discussion of its potential to guide future research on the developmental foundations of narrative coherence and on the benefits of personal narrative coherence for different aspects of psychological functioning.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT}, author={Reese, Elaine and Haden, Catherine A. and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Bauer, Patricia and Fivush, Robyn and Ornstein, Peter A.}, year={2011}, pages={424–462} }
 @article{morris_baker-ward_bauer_2010, title={What Remains of that Day: The Survival of Children's Autobiographical Memories Across Time}, volume={24}, ISSN={["0888-4080"]}, DOI={10.1002/acp.1567}, abstractNote={In this study we investigated the contributions of the content and the coherence of initial event reports to the survival of autobiographical memories during part of the lifespan eventually obscured by childhood amnesia. Over 100 children reported personal experiences when they were 4, 6 or 8 years old, enabling a determination of age-related differences in two aspects of narrative coherence: Theme and chronology. Content was assessed separately through the presentation of directed memory probes. After a 1-year delay, younger children more frequently failed to report target experiences. Multilevel modelling indicated that the survivability of a memory was predicted over and above the child's age by high thematic coherence of the initial memory narrative, but not by the memory content. It is possible that memories described in a highly thematically coherent narrative are indicative of well-integrated event memories, and thus likely to be cued more often, resulting in their long-term survival. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.}, number={4}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Morris, Gwynn and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Bauer, Patricia J.}, year={2010}, month={May}, pages={527–544} }
 @article{morris_baker-ward_2007, title={Fragile but real: Children's capacity to use newly acquired words to convey preverbal memories}, volume={78}, ISSN={["0009-3920"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01008.x}, abstractNote={There is ongoing debate about children's ability to use subsequently acquired language to describe preverbal experiences. This issue was addressed experimentally in this investigation using a novel paradigm. Two-year-old children who lacked color words were individually taught to activate a bubble machine by selecting a particular color of bubble solution. The children then participated in weekly, experimenter-provided activities that fostered their acquisition of the color labels. After 2 months, their ability to apply the newly acquired words in reporting the original event was assessed. A significant proportion of the children demonstrated verbal recall when prompted in the presence of physical reminders of the event. These findings indicate that some early, preverbal memories are translated into words at a later time.}, number={2}, journal={CHILD DEVELOPMENT}, author={Morris, Gwynn and Baker-Ward, Lynne}, year={2007}, pages={448–458} }
 @article{ornstein_baker-ward_gordon_pelphrey_tyler_gramzow_2006, title={The influence of prior knowledge and repeated questioning on children's long-term retention of the details of a pediatric examination}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1073/0012-1649.42.2.332}, number={2}, journal={Developmental Psychology}, author={Ornstein, P. A. and Baker-Ward, L. and Gordon, B. N. and Pelphrey, K. A. and Tyler, C. S. and Gramzow, E.}, year={2006}, pages={332–344} }
 @article{ornstein_baker-ward_gordon_pelphrey_tyler_gramzow_2006, title={The influence of prior knowledge and repeated questioning on children's long-term retention of the details of a pediatric examination.}, volume={42}, ISSN={1939-0599 0012-1649}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.332}, DOI={10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.332}, abstractNote={Children's recall of the details of pediatric examinations was examined over the course of a 6-month interval. Although the 83 4- to 7-year-old participants reported a substantial amount of information at each assessment, performance declined over time, dropping sharply over the course of 3 months but then remaining constant out to the final interview at 6 months. As expected, older children provided more total information than younger children did and reported a greater proportion of the event components in response to general rather than specific questions. However, comparable patterns of remembering and forgetting over time were observed at each age level. In addition, no effects of repeated questioning--in the form of an interview at 3 months for half of the children--were observed on performance at the 6-month assessment. Moreover, children's prior knowledge about routine doctor visits was assessed before the checkup for half of the participants at each age and was associated with initial but not delayed recall. Although knowledge increased with age as expected, it nonetheless affected recall over and above the influence of age.}, number={2}, journal={Developmental Psychology}, publisher={American Psychological Association (APA)}, author={Ornstein, Peter A. and Baker-Ward, Lynne and Gordon, Betty N. and Pelphrey, Kevin A. and Tyler, Caroline Staneck and Gramzow, Elizabeth}, year={2006}, pages={332–344} }
 @article{cain_baker-ward_eaton_2005, title={A face in the crowd: The influences of familiarity and delay on preschoolers' recognition}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1477-2744"]}, DOI={10.1080/10683160418331294835}, abstractNote={Abstract Preschoolers’ abilities to recognize former caregivers were examined. Participants were 35 children from three preschool classes. Caregivers volunteered in the classes over a 7-week period. At an initial assessment, children were asked to select former caregivers from a line-up of five photographs, and to rank-order the caregivers by personal preference. Recognition was assessed again after 3 months. Although older toddlers performed at chance levels, clear age-related increases in recognition performance were observed, with older preschoolers recognizing 86% of the volunteers at time 2. Younger children responded less consistently over time than older children. Preference for individual caregivers affected recognition performance among younger, but not older, preschoolers. Implications for children's eyewitness testimony are considered.}, number={3}, journal={PSYCHOLOGY CRIME & LAW}, author={Cain, WJ and Baker-Ward, L and Eaton, KL}, year={2005}, month={Sep}, pages={315–327} }
 @article{cain_eaton_baker-ward_yen_2005, title={Facilitating low-income children's narrative performances through interviewer elaborative style and reporting condition}, volume={40}, ISSN={["0163-853X"]}, DOI={10.1207/s15326950dp4003_2}, abstractNote={This research examined 2 strategies for encouraging children's narratives. Twenty-five European American and 31 African American children from low-income backgrounds (M age = 4.76) participated. Children were assigned randomly to either high or low elaborative narrative style conditions and to either a draw-and-tell or tell-only reporting condition. Afterward, each child participated in an in-class activity and then narrated about it with either high or low elaborative interviewers in either draw-and-tell or tell-only reporting conditions. Children's narratives were coded for narrative indicators. Children's narratives did not differ by ethnicity. However, analysis of variance tests documented that children provided more particular narrative indicators when narrating with high elaborative interviewers. The tell-only and draw-and-tell reporting conditions differentially benefitted African American and European American children's narratives. Implications for future work are discussed.}, number={3}, journal={DISCOURSE PROCESSES}, author={Cain, WJ and Eaton, KL and Baker-Ward, L and Yen, G}, year={2005}, pages={193–208} }
 @article{myers_gramzow_ornstein_wagner_gordon_baker-ward_2003, title={Children's memory of a physical examination: A comparison of recall and recognition assessment protocols}, volume={27}, ISSN={["1464-0651"]}, DOI={10.1080/01650250244000029}, abstractNote={Previous studies of children's abilities to remember the details of salient personal experiences have consistently obtained age differences in various aspects of memory performance. For example, research on children's memory for recent physical examinations indicates that 3-year-olds provide less information in response to open-ended questions and exhibit more forgetting over time than do older children. Given these findings, the present studies were designed to explore further the abilities of 3-year-olds to remember a specified visit to the doctor. In contrast to earlier investigations, in which young children's memory was assessed solely by a verbal protocol that began with broad, open-ended questions, the two studies reported here explored the usefulness of a recognition-based assessment interview. Because of the context specificity that characterises children's memory performance, it was hypothesised that a recognition measure would provide a more sensitive index of the information available in young children's memory than would the standard interview, and thus lead to a reduction of the typically obtained age differences in performance. In contrast to these expectations, clear age differences in memory performance were observed among the children who received the recognition-based interview. Because these age differences stemmed largely from the 3-year-olds' high rate of false alarms to lures, the findings suggest that professionals who interview children should exercise caution when interpreting responses to yes-no questions. The convergence of these findings with recent results obtained in tests of Fuzzy-Trace Theory is also discussed.}, number={1}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT}, author={Myers, J and Gramzow, E and Ornstein, PA and Wagner, L and Gordon, BN and Baker-Ward, L}, year={2003}, month={Jan}, pages={66–73} }
 @article{burgwyn-bailes_baker-ward_gordon_ornstein_2001, title={Children's memory for emergency medical treatment after one year: The impact of individual difference variables on recall and suggestibility}, volume={15}, ISSN={["0888-4080"]}, DOI={10.1002/acp.833}, abstractNote={This study explores the impact of individual difference variables on children's recall and suggestibility when they discuss a stressful personal experience. It was hypothesized that some differences in social factors, including child self concept and parenting style, would be associated with variations in the way children related their experiences. Participants were 24 3- to 7-year-old children who sustained facial lacerations requiring minor medical emergency treatment by a plastic surgeon. The children were interviewed about their surgeries on three occasions: a few days, 6 weeks and 1 year after the experience. A number of individual difference measures were administered to the children and their parents at the time of the first two interviews. The results support the hypothesis that there are individual difference variables that may help to explain some of the variability in children's recall and suggestibility. Younger children with poorer receptive language skills and children of more traditional parents recalled less total information about their surgeries after one year. Child traditionalism, achievement-motivation and social avoidance, as assessed by use of the Eder Self-View Questionnaire, made a difference in suggestibility at the initial interview, but not at subsequent memory assessments. The results are interpreted as suggesting that both the demand characteristics of the interview and the strength of the memory trace are important in understanding the effects of individual difference variables in memory performance. Implications for child testimony are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.}, number={7}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Burgwyn-Bailes, E and Baker-Ward, L and Gordon, BN and Ornstein, PA}, year={2001}, month={Dec}, pages={S25–S48} }
 @article{principe_ornstein_baker-ward_gordon_2000, title={The effects of intervening experiences on children's memory for a physical examination}, volume={14}, ISSN={["0888-4080"]}, DOI={10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(200001)14:1<59::AID-ACP637>3.0.CO;2-4}, abstractNote={To examine the extent to which children's long-term retention is influenced (both positively and negatively) by intervening events, the impact of three programmed experiences on later recall of the details of a physical examination was explored. Four groups of 3- and 5-year-olds were established, with all children being interviewed immediately after their check-ups and then again after 12 weeks. The groups, however, differed in terms of their experiences midway through the delay interval. At each age level, children in three experimental groups received either a complete interview about the physical examination, a return visit to the pediatrician's office, or an opportunity to view a videotape that showed a child receiving an actual check-up. Children in a fourth group served as controls in that they were not seen during the delay period. Recall of standard features was scored, along with responses to questions concerning procedures that did not occur. The results indicated mixed mnemonic effects for the differential intervening experiences. In comparison to the control group, children at each age who had received an additional interview or who had observed the videotape showed elevated open-ended recall at the 12-week interview. In addition, the videotape manipulation, as well as the return visit to the doctor's office, was associated with a marked decrease in the 5- but not the 3-year-olds' accuracy regarding questions about activities not included in the physical examinations. The results are discussed in terms of factors that affect the facilitation and distortion of memory over long temporal delays. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.}, number={1}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Principe, GF and Ornstein, PA and Baker-Ward, L and Gordon, BN}, year={2000}, pages={59–80} }
 @article{greenhoot_ornstein_gordon_baker-ward_1999, title={Acting out the details of a pediatric check-up: The impact of interview condition and behavioral style on children's memory reports}, volume={70}, ISSN={["1467-8624"]}, DOI={10.1111/1467-8624.00027}, abstractNote={This investigation was designed to determine whether an enactment interview condition involving a doll and props, in contrast to a verbal interview, would enhance 3- and 5-year-olds' (N = 62) recall of a pediatric examination. An additional aim was to explore the influence of behavioral styles and language skills on children's performance, and the extent to which these relations varied by age and interview condition. Both 1- and 6-weeks following their check-ups, the children in the enactment condition, particularly the 3-year-olds, provided more spontaneous, elaborate reports than did those assessed with a verbal protocol. Nonetheless, enactment also resulted in increased errors by the 3-year-olds at the first interview, and by children in both age groups after the 6-week delay. The age and interview condition effects, however, were moderated by the children's behavioral characteristics. Among the younger children, a measure of manageability predicted performance in the enactment setting, whereas an indicator of persistence was associated with recall in the verbal condition. The results have implications for an understanding of children's memory of events and of their ability to provide testimony in legal settings.}, number={2}, journal={CHILD DEVELOPMENT}, author={Greenhoot, AF and Ornstein, PA and Gordon, BN and Baker-Ward, L}, year={1999}, pages={363–380} }
 @article{imhoff_baker-ward_1999, title={Preschoolers' suggestibility: Effects of developmentally appropriate language and interviewer supportiveness}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0193-3973"]}, DOI={10.1016/s0193-3973(99)00022-2}, abstractNote={Three- and four-year-old children were interviewed about a personally experienced event after a 2-week delay. Children were interviewed with one of four alternative interview protocols that differed with regard to degree of interviewer support and language appropriateness. Accuracy of responses to direct questions concerning event features was scored, and answers to misleading questions were coded as an indicator of suggestibility. Individual difference measures of language ability, temperament, task engagement, and parenting attitudes were also collected. The results indicate that interviewers can increase young preschoolers' resistance to suggestibility by using language that is easily comprehensible to young children. Language appropriateness was not as important for the older children and the degree of support did not influence suggestibility for either the younger or the older children. Furthermore, individual difference measures were not related to accuracy for direct questions or suggestibility.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Imhoff, MC and Baker-Ward, L}, year={1999}, pages={407–429} }
 @article{ornstein_merritt_baker-ward_furtado_gordon_principe_1998, title={Children's knowledge, expectation, and long-term retention}, volume={12}, ISSN={["0888-4080"]}, DOI={10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199808)12:4<387::AID-ACP574>3.0.CO;2-5}, abstractNote={To examine the influence of prior knowledge on children's immediate and delayed recall of the details of a physical examination, 4- and 6-year-olds received a specially constructed check-up that included some typical, expected medical features (e.g. listening to the heart), while omitting others, and incorporated several atypical, unexpected procedures (e.g. measuring head circumference). Using a combination of open-ended and more specific probes, the children were assessed for their recall of expected and unexpected features that had been included in or omitted from the examination. Expectation based on prior knowledge affected three aspects of performance. First, correct recall of typical features that had been experienced exceeded that of unexpected features. Second, after a 12-week delay, spontaneous incorrect recall of expected-but-omitted features was considerable, with 42% of 4-year-olds and 72% of 6-year-olds making at least one intrusion, and essentially zero for atypical procedures that were unexpected and omitted. Third, when questioned directly about medical procedures not included in the examination, correct denials were high for atypical features, but at chance levels for those that were expected. The positive and negative influences of knowledge raise questions about children's abilities to differentiate clearly between experience and expectation and have implications for understanding their testimony. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.}, number={4}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Ornstein, PA and Merritt, KA and Baker-Ward, L and Furtado, E and Gordon, BN and Principe, G}, year={1998}, month={Aug}, pages={387–405} }
 @article{ornstein_baker-ward_gordon_merritt_1997, title={Children's memory for medical experiences: Implications for testimony}, volume={11}, ISSN={["0888-4080"]}, DOI={10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199712)11:7<S87::AID-ACP556>3.0.CO;2-Z}, abstractNote={Because medical procedures involve bodily contact and may evoke discomfort or pain, they are in some ways analogous to instances of child abuse. As such, the study of children's memory for medical experiences provides information that is relevant for an understanding of their abilities to provide accurate eyewitness testimony. This article summarizes the results of a number of studies that have explored children's long-term retention of details of routine physical examinations as well as other less familiar and more stressful medical procedures. The goal of this work has been to chart age differences in the retention and forgetting of pediatric check-ups and to examine some of the variables that affect children's memory for the details of medical procedures. The results of this research program are discussed in the context of four general themes about the flow of information within the memory system. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.}, journal={APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Ornstein, PA and Baker-Ward, L and Gordon, BN and Merritt, KA}, year={1997}, month={Dec}, pages={S87–S104} }
 @article{justice_bakerward_gupta_jannings_1997, title={Means to the goal of remembering: Developmental changes in awareness of strategy use performance relations}, volume={65}, ISSN={["0022-0965"]}, DOI={10.1006/jecp.1997.2368}, abstractNote={We examined awareness of the causal relation between strategy use and recall performance among preschoolers, first graders, and third graders, and the relation of this awareness to children's study behavior and recall. In session 1, children were presented with two study-recall trials; the second trial included questions concerning the child's study behavior. During Session 2, children viewed videotapes in which a model's strategy use (labeling versus no labeling) and recall level (high versus low) were varied orthogonally. Children judged whether the model tried to remember, rated how hard the model tried to remember, and described how they knew. Children who gave mentalistic explanations for their study behaviors in Session 1 recalled more than those giving nonmentalistic explanations. In Session 2, age-related differences were observed in awareness of the relation between strategy use and performance level. Further, children who demonstrated understanding of strategy use-performance relations in Session 2 were more likely to give mentalistic explanations for their own study behaviors in Session 1. The results further delineate the metamemorial development that contributes to effective strategy utilization.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Justice, EM and BakerWard, L and Gupta, S and Jannings, LR}, year={1997}, month={Jun}, pages={293–314} }