@article{walker_posner_nelson_watson_2024, title={The Transition from Letter Grading to Modified Pass-Fail Grading at a College of Veterinary Medicine: A Narrative Inquiry of Student Experiences}, ISSN={["1943-7218"]}, DOI={10.3138/jvme-2023-0125}, abstractNote={Compared with traditional letter grading, pass/fail grading is an assessment approach that can alter the educational environment and enhance student wellbeing without compromising education quality. Little is known about the experiences of students during the transition from traditional grading to pass/fail grading. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in an abrupt move to modified pass-fail (MPF) grading at North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine (NCSU-CVM), followed by a decision to permanently adopt MPF grading for the entire core pre-clinical doctor of veterinary medicine (DVM) curriculum. This study employed a narrative inquiry of surveys and interviews to facilitate deep understanding of student perspectives during the transition to MPF grading. Focus was placed on understanding what this transition meant for DVM students in terms of life and learning quality. Our analysis identified seven key themes that captured student experiences, which were generally positive, during this transition: education culture, student perceptions of instructor impact, shift from extrinsic to intrinsic valuation of curricular content, competitiveness for external merit-based opportunities, use of letter grading and MPF in a single semester, student recommendations, and wellbeing. Through exploration of these themes and presentation of concerns identified in students’ stories, this study provides guidance for other programs considering revision of their own assessment frameworks.}, journal={JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICAL EDUCATION}, author={Walker, Grayson K. and Posner, Lysa P. and Nelson, Laura L. and Watson, Jesse S.}, year={2024}, month={Jan} }
 @article{briley_washington_westermeyer_posner_chiavaccini_2023, title={Comparison of a blind and an ultrasound-guided technique for Retrobulbar anesthesia in dogs undergoing unilateral subconjunctival enucleation}, volume={4}, ISSN={["1463-5224"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13092}, DOI={10.1111/vop.13092}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
This study compared the quality of retrobulbar anesthesia using a blind inferior-temporal palpebral approach (ITP) with an ultrasound-guided supratemporal (ST) technique in dogs undergoing unilateral enucleation.


ANIMAL STUDIED
Twenty-one client-owned dogs were undergoing enucleation.


PROCEDURES
Dogs were randomly assigned to receive ITP (n = 10) or ST (n = 11) with 0.5% ropivacaine at 0.1 mL/cm of neurocranial length. The anesthetist was blinded to the technique. Intraoperative data included cardiopulmonary variables, inhalant anesthetics requirement, and requirement for rescue analgesia (intravenous fentanyl 2.5 mcg/kg). Postoperative data included pain scores, sedation scores, and need for intravenous hydromorphone (0.05 mg/kg). Treatments were compared using Wilcoxon's rank sum test or Fisher's exact test as appropriate. Comparison of variables over time were tested using a mixed effect linear model on rank. Significance was set at p = 0.05.


RESULTS
Intraoperative cardiopulmonary variables and inhalant requirements were not different between groups. Dogs receiving ITP required median (interquartile range, IQR) 1.25 (0, 2.5) mcg/kg intraoperative fentanyl while those receiving ST required none (p < 0.01). Intraoperative fentanyl was required in 5/10 and 0/11 of dogs in the ITP and ST groups, respectively (p = 0.01). Postoperative analgesia requirements were not significantly different between groups; 2/10 and 1/10 dogs in the ITP and ST groups, respectively. Sedation score negatively affected pain score (p < 0.01).


CONCLUSIONS
The ultrasound-guided ST technique was more effective at decreasing intraoperative opioid requirements than the blind ITP approach in dogs undergoing unilateral enucleation.}, journal={VETERINARY OPHTHALMOLOGY}, author={Briley, Jessica D. and Washington, Demitrius and Westermeyer, Hans D. and Posner, Lysa P. and Chiavaccini, Ludovica}, year={2023}, month={Apr} }
 @article{cassady_balko_bailey_posner_robertson_minter_2023, title={EVALUATION OF OSCILLOMETRIC BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT USING A FINGER CUFF IN ANESTHETIZED CHIMPANZEES (PAN TROGLODYTES)}, volume={54}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2021-0001}, abstractNote={Abstract: Cardiovascular disease is common among chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and serial blood pressure monitoring in conscious animals may improve disease surveillance and guide hypertension treatment strategies. The objective of this study was to compare the accuracy of a noninvasive, oscillometric blood pressure monitor using a finger blood pressure cuff with invasively measured blood pressure in anesthetized chimpanzees. Twelve chimpanzees were anesthetized with tiletamine–zolazepam intramuscularly, intubated, and maintained on inhaled isoflurane to effect. Blood pressure measurements, which included systolic arterial pressure (SAP), mean arterial pressure (MAP), and diastolic arterial pressure (DAP), were collected simultaneously from an oscillometric blood pressure cuff placed on a forelimb digit (FBP) and a direct arterial catheter (IBP) every 5–10 min while anesthetized. One hundred paired samples were collected, and results were compared using Bland–Altman plots and analysis. FBP showed good agreement with IBP for SAP, MAP, and DAP but consistently overestimated values compared with IBP. FBP may be useful for serial blood pressure monitoring in conscious chimpanzees.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Cassady, Katherine R. and Balko, Julie A. and Bailey, Kate M. and Posner, Lysa P. and Robertson, James B. and Minter, Larry J.}, year={2023}, month={Mar}, pages={16–22} }
 @article{gorges_martinez_labriola_phillips_christian_chen_posner_lewbart_dombrowski_2022, title={EFFECTS OF TRICAINE METHANESULFONATE IN A MANAGED COLLECTION OF MOON JELLYFISH (AURELIA AURITA)}, volume={53}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2021-0028}, abstractNote={Abstract: The moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) is a scyphozoan frequently maintained in public and private aquaria. Little research has been conducted to investigate the effects of various drugs, such as anesthetics, in this species. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222), a common immersion anesthetic for fish and amphibians, was evaluated in a managed population of moon jellyfish. Twenty-four clinically healthy jellyfish were assigned into three groups of eight for trials of 0.3 g/L MS-222 (low concentration [LC]), 0.6 g/L MS-222 (high concentration [HC]), and a saltwater control. The goal was to evaluate the effects of MS-222 administration on moon jellyfish movement and response to stimuli. Movement and response to stimuli were measured via rocking and probe stimulus tests and observations of bell contraction quality and body tone. These tests were performed at baseline and throughout both drug exposure and recovery periods. A threshold drug effect was defined based on systematic scoring criteria. Additionally, elastomer tags were administered to four of eight animals in each MS-222 group to evaluate response to tag placement after drug exposure. Threshold drug effect was achieved in six of eight individuals in the LC group and eight of eight individuals in the HC group. The LC group had median threshold and recovery times of 12.2 and 10.1 min, respectively, while the HC group had median threshold and recovery times of 4.0 and 19.9 min, respectively. The HC group had significantly faster time to threshold drug effect (P < 0.001) and longer recovery times (P= 0.005) than the LC group. In both the LC and HC tagged group, three of four jellyfish had no reaction to tag placement. All animals recovered uneventfully, and there were no mortalities. MS-222 at 0.3 and 0.6 g/L decreased movement and response to stimuli in moon jellyfish.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Gorges, Melinda A. and Martinez, Kassandra M. and Labriola, Nicholas F. and Phillips, Brianne E. and Christian, Larry Shane and Chen, Emile P. and Posner, Lysa P. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Dombrowski, Daniel S.}, year={2022}, month={Mar}, pages={100–107} }
 @article{oda_wang_hampton_robertson_posner_2022, title={Perianesthetic mortality in English Bulldogs: a retrospective analysis in 2010-2017}, volume={18}, ISSN={["1746-6148"]}, DOI={10.1186/s12917-022-03301-9}, abstractNote={Many veterinarians consider English Bulldogs to have a greater perianesthetic mortality risk. The aims of this study were to 1) determine total and anesthesia-related, perianesthetic mortality (PAM) rates in English Bulldogs (EB), 2) identify potential risk factors associated with mortality in EB, and 3) determine the difference in the perianesthetic mortality rates between EB, other-brachycephalic breeds (OB), and non-brachycephalic breeds (NB). Records from EB that were anesthetized between 2010 and 2017, were investigated. OB and NB were enrolled to match with each EB based on a procedure and age from the study period. Data collected in EB included: age, ASA status, weight, procedure types, anesthetic and analgesic management, anesthetic duration, anesthetic recovery location, and cause of death. Age and cause of death were determined from OB and NB. Fisher's exact test was used to compare PAM rate and age in EB, OB, and NB. Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare EB survivor and EB non-survivor. Logistic regression models were used to identify factors and odds ratio (OR) associated with PAM in EB.Two hundred twenty nine EB, 218 OB, and 229 NB were identified. The total and anesthesia-related PAM rates in EB were 6.6 and 3.9%, respectively. EB had a greater total PAM rate compared with OB (p = 0.007). ASA status was different between survivors and non-survivors in EB (p < 0.01). Risk factors identified regardless of the cause of death were premedication with full μ opioids (OR = 0.333, p = 0.114), continuous infusion of ketamine post-operatively (OR = 13.775, p = 0.013), and acepromazine administration post-operatively (OR = 7.274, p = 0.004). The most common cause of death in EB was postoperative respiratory dysfunction (87.5%).Total and anesthesia-related mortality in EB is considerable. Most deaths in EB occurred during the postoperative period secondary to respiratory complications.}, number={1}, journal={BMC VETERINARY RESEARCH}, author={Oda, Ayako and Wang, Wen Hui and Hampton, Amanda K. and Robertson, James B. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2022}, month={May} }
 @article{wang_lynch_balko_duffy_robertson_posner_2022, title={Point-of-care viscoelastic coagulation assessment in healthy dogs during the perianesthetic period}, volume={18}, ISSN={["1746-6148"]}, DOI={10.1186/s12917-022-03442-x}, abstractNote={The viscoelastic coagulation monitor (VCM Vet) is a novel, portable device that provides a global assessment of hemostasis. The study aims were to evaluate serial viscoelastic analysis during the perianesthetic period in healthy dogs and to compare the agreement between two VCM Vet devices. Twenty healthy dogs undergoing orthopedic surgery were enrolled. Whole blood samples were collected from an intravenous catheter at four time points: baseline, 15 min after premedication, 60 min after inhalant initiation, and 60 min after inhalant termination. Viscoelastic tests were performed in duplicate on different devices, providing: clot time (CT; seconds), clot formation time (CFT; seconds), alpha angle (α; degrees), amplitude (units) at 10 (A10) and 20 (A20) minutes post clot time, maximum clot firmness (MCF; units), and lysis index (%) at 30 (Li30) and 45 (Li45) minutes post maximum clot formation.One hundred sixty samples were analyzed. The speed of CT and CFT significantly decreased an average of 25.5 s (95% confidence interval [CI]15.9-35.0) and 6.9 s (95% CI 3.1-10.7) per time point, respectively. There were no significant changes in clot strength or lysis variables. The Bland-Altman style plot shows an acceptable rate of agreement for all variables with intra-class correlation ranging from 0.64-0.94.The rate of clot formation (CT and CFT) decreased over the perianesthetic period in healthy dogs undergoing surgery. These changes were small and occurred without changes in clot strength or fibrinolysis rate, thus were not clinically relevant. There was clinically acceptable consistency between devices.}, number={1}, journal={BMC VETERINARY RESEARCH}, author={Wang, Wen H. and Lynch, Alex M. and Balko, Julie A. and Duffy, Daniel J. and Robertson, James B. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2022}, month={Sep} }
 @article{balko_fogle_stuska_fogle_posner_2021, title={Retrospective and prospective assessment of butorphanol, azaperone and medetomidine (BAM (TM)) for immobilisation of feral horses (Equus ferus caballus)}, volume={7}, ISSN={["2042-3306"]}, DOI={10.1111/evj.13490}, abstractNote={BACKGROUND
Butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine (BAM™) has not been evaluated in horses.


OBJECTIVES
To evaluate BAM™ for chemical restraint of feral horses.


STUDY DESIGN
Retrospective and prospective descriptive studies.


METHODS
Data was collected retrospectively from medical records of 28 feral horses immobilised with BAM™ over a six-year period. Prospectively, 0.0125 ml/kg bwt of BAM™ (butorphanol 27.3 mg/mL, azaperone 9.1 mg/mL, medetomidine 10.9 mg/mL) intramuscularly (IM) was administered to 8 stallions via dart and, once recumbent, 1.0 mg/kg bwt ketamine was given intravenously (IV). Induction and recovery time and quality via a standardised rubric (1 = very poor, 5 = excellent) and visual analog scale (VAS), need for additional darts, weight tape measurement, and serial physiological parameters were recorded. Serial arterial blood gas analysis was performed during recumbency. Following castration, horses were given 0.1 mg/kg bwt atipamezole (25% IV, 75% IM) and allowed to recover unaided.


RESULTS
Retrospectively, twenty-eight horses were successfully immobilised with BAM™ without a major complication. Prospectively, eight horses were given a median (range) actual BAMTM dose of 0.0143 (0.0127-0.0510) mL/kg bwt. Three of eight horses needed 1, 2, or 5 additional darts. Median (range) time to recumbency was 11 (2-44) min. Median (range) induction (n=4) and recovery (n=6) scores via rubric and VAS were 5 (4-5) and 5 (5-5) and 92 (86-93) and 98 (92-99) cm, respectively. Four of seven horses were hypoxaemic at ≥1 time point with otherwise acceptable physiological parameters. Following atipamezole, median (range) time to sternal recumbency and standing was 12 (2-18) and 17 (11-52) min, respectively (n=6).


MAIN LIMITATIONS
The sample size was small. Data could not be collected before darting or after recovery. Some data were missing from retrospective analysis.


CONCLUSIONS
Intramuscular BAM™ with IV ketamine provided chemical restraint suitable for field castration of feral horses with no mortality. Hypoxaemia occurred in the majority of horses.}, journal={EQUINE VETERINARY JOURNAL}, author={Balko, Julie A. and Fogle, Callie and Stuska, Susan J. and Fogle, Jonathan E. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2021}, month={Jul} }
 @article{zibura_posner_ru_westermeyer_2020, title={A preoperative bupivacaine retrobulbar block offers superior antinociception compared with an intraoperative splash block in dogs undergoing enucleation}, volume={23}, ISSN={["1463-5224"]}, DOI={10.1111/vop.12708}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={2}, journal={VETERINARY OPHTHALMOLOGY}, author={Zibura, Ashley E. and Posner, Lysa P. and Ru, Hongyu and Westermeyer, Hans D.}, year={2020}, month={Mar}, pages={225–233} }
 @article{louis_houck_lewbart_posner_balko_2020, title={EVALUATION OF POTASSIUM CHLORIDE ADMINISTERED VIA THREE ROUTES FOR EUTHANASIA OF ANESTHETIZED KOI (CYPRINUS CARPIO)}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2019-0207}, abstractNote={Abstract: Immersion in tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) is insufficient for euthanasia in at least one species of fish. The current study investigated the effectiveness of potassium chloride (KCl) to euthanize anesthetized koi (Cyprinus carpio). Twenty-eight healthy koi were anesthetized via immersion in 500 mg/L of buffered MS-222 for 10–12 min, manually removed to room air, and randomly administered 10 mEq/kg KCl (333 mg/ml) via one of three routes—intracardiac injection (IC) (n = 7), intracoelomic injection (ICe) (n = 7), or topical instillment over the gill filaments bilaterally (T) (n = 7)—or received no treatment (control, C) (n = 7). A Doppler ultrasonic flow detector was placed over the heart, and sounds were assessed continuously from immediately prior to treatment until 5 min posttreatment and every 5 min thereafter until Doppler sound cessation, resumption of operculation, or 30 min. Time to Doppler sound cessation or resumption of operculation was recorded. Doppler sound cessation occurred in 7/7 fish in IC (median 0.08, range 0–2.75 min) and 1/7 fish in T (10 min). In T, ICe, and C, 6/7, 7/7, and 7/7 fish, respectively, maintained Doppler sounds to 30 min. All fish in ICe (7/7) and C (7/7) resumed operculation with median (range) times of 22 (7–30) min and 16 (9–29) min from treatment, respectively. Intracardiac KCl at 10 mEq/kg rapidly ceases Doppler sounds and is a successful technique for euthanasia of anesthetized koi. Intracoelomic and topical KCl at 10 mEq/kg were not effective for euthanasia of koi.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Louis, Meghan M. and Houck, Emma L. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Posner, Lysa P. and Balko, Julie A.}, year={2020}, month={Sep}, pages={485–489} }
 @article{milloway_posner_balko_2020, title={SEDATIVE AND CARDIORESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF INTRAMUSCULAR ALFAXALONE AND BUTORPHANOL AT TWO DOSAGES IN FERRETS (MUSTELA PUTORIUS FURO)}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2019-0241}, abstractNote={Abstract: Veterinary care of ferrets often requires chemical restraint. This study hypothesized that IM alfaxalone and butorphanol would result in clinically useful sedation without clinically relevant cardiorespiratory effects. Twelve healthy 15-mo-old ferrets of equal sexes weighing 0.75 to 1.66 kg were enrolled. Using a prospective, blinded design, ferrets randomly received either IM alfaxalone 2.5 mg/kg and butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg (low dose [LD]) or IM alfaxalone 5 mg/kg and butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg (high dose [HD]) (n = 6/group). Sedation times and induction and recovery scores were recorded by a blinded observer. Anesthetic monitor placement was attempted in all recumbent ferrets, and physiologic parameters and reflexes were recorded every 5 min until return of spontaneous movement. Data were assessed for normality using a Shapiro-Wilk normality test and analyzed by two-sample t test or Mann-Whitney U test; one ferret in HD was excluded. Ferrets in LD and HD exhibited moderate and marked sedation, with one of six and four of five ferrets tolerating monitor placement, respectively. Mean ± SD time to first effects, recumbency, and recovery in LD and HD was 2.30 ± 1.13 and 2.054 ± 1.12 (P = 0.7240), 2.87 ± 1.25 and 2.72 ± 1.41 (P = 0.8529), and 65.43 ± 32.43 and 52.30 ± 13.19 (P = 0.4212), respectively. Median (range) duration of recumbency in LD and HD was 31.12 (25.58–115.72) and 35.47 (28.27–44.42) min (P = 0.3290), respectively. Among monitored ferrets, transient mild hypotension and hypoxemia were observed. Intramuscular alfaxalone 5 mg/kg with butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg provided clinically useful sedation in ferrets with mild transient cardiorespiratory derangements.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Milloway, Matthew C. and Posner, Lysa P. and Balko, Julie A.}, year={2020}, month={Dec}, pages={841–847} }
 @article{posner_applegate_cannedy_deresienski_mozzachio_serrano_lewbart_2020, title={Total injectable anesthesia of dogs and cats for remote location veterinary sterilization clinic}, volume={16}, ISSN={["1746-6148"]}, DOI={10.1186/s12917-020-02525-x}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={1}, journal={BMC VETERINARY RESEARCH}, author={Posner, Lysa Pam and Applegate, Jeffrey and Cannedy, Allen and Deresienski, Diane and Mozzachio, Kristie and Serrano, Maria and Lewbart, Gregory}, year={2020}, month={Aug} }
 @article{royal_hedgpeth_posner_2019, title={A Simple Methodology for Discerning Item Construction Flaws in Health Professions Examinations}, volume={5}, ISSN={2452-3011}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.HPE.2018.03.001}, DOI={10.1016/J.HPE.2018.03.001}, abstractNote={To introduce to health professions educators a simple methodology that can help discern item construction flaws and mitigate testwiseness effects. The methodology involved administering a veterinary medical school exam to medical school professional staff participants with no formal training in the medical and health sciences. The methodology was evidenced to be robust, as multiple items containing item construction flaws were identified by inflated success rates for a group of examinees who had no prior training in the subject matter. Health professions educators are encouraged to utilize the methodology presented in this paper, where appropriate, to discern item construction flaws, reduce measurement error, and increase score validity relating to their assessments.}, number={1}, journal={Health Professions Education}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Royal, Kenneth D. and Hedgpeth, Mari-Wells and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2019}, month={Mar}, pages={82–89} }
 @article{balko_posner_chinnadurai_2019, title={IMMERSION IN TRICAINE METHANESULFONATE (MS-222) IS NOT SUFFICIENT FOR EUTHANASIA OF SMOKEY JUNGLE FROGS (LEPTODACTYLUS PENTADACTYLUS)}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2018-0033}, abstractNote={Abstract: Although tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) immersion has historically been standard of care for fish and anuran euthanasia, recent research has proven it insufficient for euthanasia of goldfish. To assess appropriateness for humane euthanasia of anurans, this study evaluated the efficacy of MS-222 in Smokey Jungle Frogs (Leptodactylus pentadactylus). Eighteen frogs (21–33 g) were exposed to one of three MS-222 concentrations via partial immersion: 2.5 g/L for 90 min (M2.5/90), 5 g/L for 60 min (M5/60), or 10 g/L for 60 min (M10/60). Physiologic parameters and times to loss of spontaneous movement, righting reflex, and noxious stimulus response were recorded. Following exposure, frogs were rinsed with dechlorinated water, and time to cessation of heart beat was recorded. Survival in M2.5/90, M5/60, and M10/60 was one of six, zero of six, and zero of six, respectively. In M2.5/90, three of six frogs had continued purposeful, spontaneous movement throughout exposure. In M5/60 and M10/60, median (range) time to initial loss of movement was 14.3 (5.5–30.0) and 7.6 (4.8–19.7) min, respectively. Twelve of 18 frogs among all groups demonstrated a median (range) of two (one to six) episodes of regained consciousness with purposeful, spontaneous movement following loss of noxious stimulus response. Median (range) time to heart beat cessation in M2.5/90, M5/60, and M10/60 was 150 (135–210), 157.5 (60–225), and 90 (75–210) min, respectively. Although death was achieved in 17 of 18 frogs, given the repeated events of regained consciousness, MS-222 immersion when used at concentrations ≤10 g/L did not result in rapid and distress-free death and is not sufficient for humane euthanasia in this species.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Balko, Julie A. and Posner, Lysa P. and Chinnadurai, Sathya K.}, year={2019}, month={Mar}, pages={89–95} }
 @article{gingold_killos_griffith_posner_2019, title={Measurement of peripheral muscle oxygen saturation in conscious healthy horses using a near-infrared spectroscopy device}, volume={46}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.vaa.2019.07.001}, abstractNote={Objective Maintaining adequate muscle tissue oxygenation is of paramount importance during equine general anesthesia. The objectives of this study were to assess the feasibility, reliability and repeatability of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) muscle oximetry using the Inspectra m650 in conscious healthy adult horses. Study design Prospective, observational study. Animals A group of 30 healthy client-owned adult horses admitted to the equine hospital between July 2017 and July 2018. Methods The probe of an Inspectra m650 NIRS tissue oximeter was placed on the hairless surface of five muscle sites (omotransversarius, triceps long head, extensor carpi ulnaris, vastus lateralis and lateral digital extensor) on the left side of the body of each standing, unsedated horse. Each site had muscle oxygenation (StO2) recordings measured in triplicate and statistical modeling used to assess the reading reliability and repeatability within and between muscle sites. Results The readings acquired at the vastus lateralis and extensor carpi ulnaris muscle sites had highly repeatable values [mean (90% confidence interval): StO2, 95% (93.8%, 96.5%) and 93% (91.6%, 93.9%), respectively; intraclass correlation coefficients, 0.92 and 0.80, respectively]. These two sites also had high reliability (represented by the percentage of successful readings; 70% and 86%, respectively). Conclusions and clinical relevance The use of NIRS muscle oxygenation technology is a clinically feasible means to assess tissue oxygenation in horses. The vastus lateralis and extensor carpi ulnaris muscle sites provided the most reliable and repeatable readings when using the Inspectra m650 machine in horses.}, number={6}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Gingold, Benjamin M. C. and Killos, Maria B. and Griffith, Emily and Posner, Lysa}, year={2019}, month={Nov}, pages={789–795} }
 @article{hassen_posner_campbell_2019, title={The effect of aquapuncture at Pericardium 6 (PC-6) on dexmedetomidine-induced nausea and vomiting in cats}, volume={46}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.VAA.2019.01.004}, DOI={10.1016/J.VAA.2019.01.004}, abstractNote={Objective To determine the effect of aquapuncture at acupuncture point Pericardium 6 (PC-6) on the incidence of dexmedetomidine-induced vomiting and nausea in cats. Study design Randomized, prospective, crossover study. Animals A group of 22 cats, 14 females and eight males, aged 1–12 years and weighing 3.8–5.9 kg. Methods Each cat was administered treatments in random order at ≥1 week intervals. For treatment (DEX–A), cats were administered PC-6 stimulation by aquapuncture (0.25 mL/250 μg vitamin B12 injection subcutaneously at PC-6). After 30 minutes, dexmedetomidine (10 μg kg–1) was administered intramuscularly (IM). For control treatment (DEX), cats were administered only dexmedetomidine (10 μg kg–1) IM. Incidence of vomiting, number of vomiting episodes and time to first vomiting were recorded by an observer unaware of treatment allocation. At 30 minutes after dexmedetomidine administration, atipamezole (0.1 mg kg–1) was injected IM. Behavior was video recorded and later scored by two observers for clinical signs of nausea. A regression model (analysis of covariance) was used to detect the influence of aquapuncture on vomiting and nausea. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Of 21 cats, 18 (85%) and 16 cats (76%) vomited in DEX–A and DEX, respectively. There was no significant difference in the incidence of vomiting (p = 0.55), number of vomiting episodes (p = 0.55), mean time to vomit (p = 0.88) or nausea score (p = 0.51) between DEX–A and DEX. Conclusions and clinical relevance PC-6 aquapuncture did not reduce the incidence of dexmedetomidine-induced vomiting or severity of nausea in cats.}, number={3}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Hassen, Kimberly M. and Posner, Lysa P. and Campbell, Nigel B.}, year={2019}, month={May}, pages={308–314} }
 @article{curto_griffith_posner_walsh_balko_gilger_2018, title={Factors associated with postoperative complications in healthy horses after general anesthesia for ophthalmic versus non-ophthalmic procedures: 556 cases (2012–2014)}, volume={252}, ISSN={["1943-569X"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.252.9.1113}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={9}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, publisher={In press}, author={Curto, E.M. and Griffith, E.H. and Posner, L.P. and Walsh, K.T. and Balko, J.A. and Gilger, B.C.}, year={2018}, month={May}, pages={1113–1119} }
 @article{oda_messenger_carbajal_posner_gardner_hammer_cerreta_lewbart_bailey_2018, title={Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) following immersion in propofol}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.vaa.2018.02.005}, abstractNote={Objective To test the hypothesis that plasma propofol concentration (PPC) is associated with anesthetic effect in koi carp administered propofol by immersion. Study design Prospective study. Animals Twenty mature koi carp (mean ± standard deviation, 409.4 ± 83.7 g). Methods Fish were immersed in propofol (5 mg L–1). Physiological variables and induction and recovery times were recorded. In phase I, blood was sampled for PPC immediately following induction and at recovery. In phase II, following induction, fish were maintained with propofol (4 mg L–1) via a recirculating system for 20 minutes. Following established induction, blood was sampled at 1, 10 and 20 minutes. In phase III (n = 19), fish were anesthetized as in phase II with blood sampled nine times in a sparse sampling strategy. Simultaneously, a pharmacodynamics rubric was used to evaluate anesthetic depth. PPC was determined using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Following evaluation of normality, data were analyzed using paired t test or Spearman correlation test (significance was set at p < 0.05). Results In phase I, mean PPCs at induction (20.12 μg mL–1) and recovery (11.62 μg mL–1) were different (p < 0.001). In phase II, only mean PPCs at induction (17.92 μg mL–1) and 10 minutes (21.50 μg mL–1) were different (p = 0.013). In phase III, a correlation between PPCs and the pharmacodynamic rubric scores was found (p < 0.001, r = –0.93). There was no correlation between PPCs and recovery time (p = 0.057, r = 0.433). A two-compartment open model was chosen for the pharmacokinetic model. Absorption rate constant, elimination rate constant and intercompartmental rate constant were 0.48, 0.006 and 0.02 minute–1, respectively. Conclusions and clinical relevance Measurable PPCs were achieved in koi carp anesthetized with propofol by immersion. Anesthetic depth of fish was negatively correlated with PPCs, but recovery time was not.}, number={4}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Oda, Ayako and Messenger, Kristen M. and Carbajal, Liliana and Posner, Lysa P. and Gardner, Brett R. and Hammer, Scott H. and Cerreta, Anthony J. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Bailey, Kate M.}, year={2018}, month={Jul}, pages={529–538} }
 @article{hassen_posner_campbell_2018, title={The effect of aquapuncture at Pericardium 6 (PC-6) on dexmedetomidine-induced vomiting in cats}, volume={45}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.VAA.2018.09.017}, DOI={10.1016/J.VAA.2018.09.017}, abstractNote={Introduction: Acupuncture at point (PC-6) reduces the incidence of opioid-induced vomiting in humans and dogs. In cats, dexmedetomidine is more emetogenic than opioids. We hypothesized that aquapuncture at PC-6 would reduce dexmedetomidine-induced vomiting in cats.}, number={6}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Hassen, Kimberly and Posner, Lysa and Campbell, Nigel}, year={2018}, month={Nov}, pages={885.e6–885.e7} }
 @article{balko_oda_posner_2018, title={Use of tricaine methanesulfonate or propofol for immersion euthanasia of goldfish (Carassius auratus)}, volume={252}, DOI={10.2460/javma.252.12.1555}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={12}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, author={Balko, J. A. and Oda, A. and Posner, L. P.}, year={2018}, pages={1555–1561} }
 @article{clark-price_lascola_carter_da cunha_donaldson_doherty_martin-flores_hofmeister_keating_mama_et al._2017, title={Assessment of agreement among diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia for scoring the recovery of horses from anesthesia by use of subjective grading scales and development of a system for evaluation of the recovery of horses from anesthesia by use of accelerometry}, volume={78}, ISSN={0002-9645}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.78.6.668}, DOI={10.2460/ajvr.78.6.668}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={6}, journal={American Journal of Veterinary Research}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Clark-Price, Stuart C. and Lascola, Kara M. and Carter, Jennifer E. and da Cunha, Anderson F. and Donaldson, Lydia L. and Doherty, Thomas J. and Martin-Flores, Manuel and Hofmeister, Erik H. and Keating, Stephanie C. J. and Mama, Khursheed R. and et al.}, year={2017}, month={Jun}, pages={668–676} }
 @article{phillips_posner_lewbart_christiansen_harms_2017, title={Effects of alfaxalone administered intravenously to healthy yearling loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) at three different doses}, volume={250}, ISSN={0003-1488}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.250.8.909}, DOI={10.2460/javma.250.8.909}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={8}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Phillips, Brianne E. and Posner, Lysa P. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Christiansen, Emily F. and Harms, Craig A.}, year={2017}, month={Apr}, pages={909–917} }
 @article{nolan_gieger_karakashian_nikolova-karakashian_posner_roback_rivera_chang_2017, title={Outcomes of Spatially Fractionated Radiotherapy (GRID) for Bulky Soft Tissue Sarcomas in a Large Animal Model}, volume={16}, ISSN={1533-0346 1533-0338}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1533034617690980}, DOI={10.1177/1533034617690980}, abstractNote={ GRID directs alternating regions of high- and low-dose radiation at tumors. A large animal model mimicking the geometries of human treatments is needed to complement existing rodent systems (eg, microbeam) and clarify the physical and biological attributes of GRID. A pilot study was undertaken in pet dogs with spontaneous soft tissue sarcomas to characterize responses to GRID. Subjects were treated with either 20 Gy (3 dogs) or 25 Gy (3 dogs), delivered using 6 MV X-rays and a commercial GRID collimator. Acute toxicity and tumor responses were assessed 2, 4, and 6 weeks later. Acute Radiation Therapy Oncology Group grade I skin toxicity was observed in 3 of the 6 dogs; none experienced a measurable response, per Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors. Serum vascular endothelial growth factor, tumor necrosis factor α, and secretory sphingomyelinase were assayed at baseline, 1, 4, 24, and 48 hours after treatment. There was a trend toward platelet-corrected serum vascular endothelial growth factor concentration being lower 1 and 48 hours after GRID than at baseline. There was a significant decrease in secretory sphingomyelinase activity 48 hours after 25 Gy GRID ( P = .03). Serum tumor necrosis factor α was quantified measurable at baseline in 4 of the 6 dogs and decreased in each of those subjects at all post-GRID time points. The new information generated by this study includes the observation that high-dose, single fraction application of GRID does not induce measurable reduction in volume of canine soft tissue sarcomas. In contrast to previously published data, these data suggest that GRID may be associated with at least short-term reduction in serum concentration of vascular endothelial growth factor and serum activity of secretory sphingomyelinase. Because GRID can be applied safely, and these tumors can be subsequently surgically resected as part of routine veterinary care, pet dogs with sarcomas are an appealing model for studying the radiobiologic responses to spatially fractionated radiotherapy. }, number={3}, journal={Technology in Cancer Research & Treatment}, publisher={SAGE Publications}, author={Nolan, Michael W. and Gieger, Tracy L. and Karakashian, Alexander A. and Nikolova-Karakashian, Mariana N. and Posner, Lysa P. and Roback, Donald M. and Rivera, Judith N. and Chang, Sha}, year={2017}, month={Feb}, pages={357–365} }
 @article{balko_wilson_lewbart_gaines_posner_2017, title={PROPOFOL AS AN IMMERSION ANESTHETIC AND IN A MINIMUM ANESTHETIC CONCENTRATION (MAC) REDUCTION MODEL IN GOLDFISH (CARASSIUS AURATUS)}, volume={48}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2016-0079.1}, abstractNote={Abstract Propofol is a novel immersion anesthetic in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Objectives were to characterize propofol as an anesthetic and assess its suitability in a minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) reduction model. Using a crossover design, eight goldfish were submerged in 1, 5, or 10 mg/L propofol. Data included induction time, recovery time, heart rate, opercular rate, and response to supramaximal stimulation. Baseline MAC (Dixon's up-and-down method) was determined, and 15 fish were anesthetized with propofol on 4 consecutive days with MAC determination on the fifth day, weekly, for 1 mo. Using a crossover design, MAC of propofol (n = 15) was determined 1 hr following administration of i.m. butorphanol 0.05, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine 0.01, 0.02, and 0.04 mg/kg, ketoprofen 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg, morphine 5, 10, and 15 mg/kg, or saline 1 ml/kg. Comparisons were performed with Wilcoxon signed-rank tests (P < 0.05) and Tango's score confidence interval. Propofol at 1 mg/L did not produce anesthesia. Induction time with 10 mg/L (112, 84–166 s) was faster than 5 mg/L (233, 150–289 s; P = 0.0078). Heart and opercular rates for 5 and 10 mg/L were 36 (24–72) beats/min, 58 (44–68) operculations/min and 39 (20–48) beats/min, 57 (48–80) operculations/min, respectively. Recovery time was 249 (143–396) s and 299 (117–886) s with 5 and 10 mg/L, respectively. Response to supramaximal stimulation was not significantly different with 5 mg/L (1/8) compared with 10 mg/L (0/8). Baseline and weekly MAC following daily exposure was 8.4 and 9.0, 8.1, 8.1, and 8.7 mg/L, respectively. MAC reduction was no more than 8% following any drug or dosage. Propofol at 5 and 10 mg/L produced anesthesia, and anesthetic needs were similar following repeated exposure. Propofol was not suitable to test MAC reduction in goldfish in this study.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Balko, Julie A. and Wilson, Sarah K. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Gaines, Brian R. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2017}, month={Mar}, pages={48–54} }
 @article{nolan_arkans_lavine_defrancesco_myers_griffith_posner_keene_tou_gieger_et al._2017, title={Pilot study to determine the feasibility of radiation therapy for dogs with right atrial masses and hemorrhagic pericardial effusion}, volume={19}, ISSN={1760-2734}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvc.2016.12.001}, DOI={10.1016/j.jvc.2016.12.001}, abstractNote={To determine the short-term safety and biologic activity of radiation therapy (RT) for presumptive cardiac hemangiosarcoma in pet dogs.Six dogs with echocardiographic evidence of a right atrial/auricular mass, and hemorrhagic pericardial effusion, were enrolled in a prospective, single-arm clinical trial.A single fraction of 12 Gy was delivered using conformal external beam irradiation. Serum cardiac troponin I and plasma concentrations of vascular endothelial growth factor were quantified before, 4 and 24 h after RT. The frequency of required pericardiocenteses (quantified as the number of pericardiocenteses per week) before RT was compared to that after treatment. Overall survival time was determined.No treatment-related complications were observed. Pericardiocentesis was performed an average of 0.91 times per week before RT, and an average of 0.21 times per week after RT; this difference was statistically significant (p=0.03, as compared using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test of paired data). Pre- and post-treatment plasma vascular endothelial growth factor concentrations were not significantly different at any time point; there was a statistically significant (p=0.04; Friedman's test for non-parametric repeated measures) increase in cardiac troponin concentrations 4 h after irradiation. Median overall survival time was 79 days.In this population of dogs, RT was delivered without complication, and appears to have reduced the frequency of periacardial tamponade that necessitated pericardiocentesis. Serum cardiac troponin levels are altered after RT. RT alone, or in combination with chemotherapy, may provide clinical benefit to dogs with presumptive diagnoses of cardiac hemangiosarcoma.}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Veterinary Cardiology}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Nolan, M.W. and Arkans, M.M. and LaVine, D. and DeFrancesco, Teresa and Myers, J.A. and Griffith, E.H. and Posner, L.P. and Keene, B.W. and Tou, S.P. and Gieger, Tracy and et al.}, year={2017}, month={Apr}, pages={132–143} }
 @article{oda_messenger_carbajal_gardner_hammer_cerreta_lewbart_posner_bailey_2017, title={Plasma propofol concentrations and pharmacodynamic effects in koi carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) following exposure via immersion}, volume={44}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.VAA.2017.09.009}, DOI={10.1016/J.VAA.2017.09.009}, abstractNote={Introduction: This study was performed to determine the association between plasma propofol concentration (PPC) and anesthetic effect in koi carp anesthetized with propofol via immersion.}, number={5}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Oda, A. and Messenger, K. and Carbajal, L. and Gardner, B. and Hammer, S. and Cerreta, A. and Lewbart, G. and Posner, L. and Bailey, K.}, year={2017}, month={Sep}, pages={1262.e4–1262.e5} }
 @inbook{jarrett_bailey_messenger_prange_gaines_posner_2016, title={Recovery of horses from general anesthesia following induction with either propofol or midazolam followed by ketamine}, volume={253}, DOI={10.2460/javma.253.1.101}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={1}, booktitle={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, author={Jarrett, M.A. and Bailey, K.M. and Messenger, K.M. and Prange, T. and Gaines, B. and Posner, L.P.}, year={2016}, month={Jul}, pages={101–107} }
 @article{posner_2016, title={Troubleshooting hypothermia and hyperthermia brrrr is bad too!}, journal={Questions and Answers in Small Animal Anesthesia}, author={Posner, L. P.}, year={2016}, pages={147–153} }
 @article{bailey_minter_lewbart_harms_griffith_posner_2014, title={ALFAXALONE AS AN INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTABLE ANESTHETIC IN KOI CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO)}, volume={45}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2014-0056.1}, DOI={10.1638/2014-0056.1}, abstractNote={Abstract:  Fish are commonly anesthetized with MS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate), a sodium-channel-blocker used as an immersion anesthetic, but its mechanism of action as a general anesthetic is uncertain. Alfaxalone is a neurosteroid that acts at the GABAA receptors. Alfaxalone has been evaluated and was deemed successful as an immersion agent in koi carp. Alfaxalone is an effective intramuscular anesthetic in multiple species. A reliable intramuscular anesthetic in fish would be useful in multiple settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate alfaxalone as an intramuscular injectable anesthetic agent in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio). Eight koi carp were utilized in a crossover design. In each trial, six fish received 1 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg of alfaxalone intramuscularly. They were assessed every 15 min for opercular rate and sedation score. The sedation score was based on a visual scale from 0 to 5, 0 indicating no response and 5 indicating absent righting reflex and anesthesia. Anesthetized koi were placed on a fish anesthesia delivery system (FADS). Time to anesthesia/recovery was recorded and heart rate was recorded every 15 min. Anesthesia was achieved in 0/6, 1/6, and 5/6 fish at 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, respectively. Duration of anesthesia for one fish at 5 mg/kg was 2 hr. At 10 mg/kg, median anesthesia duration was 6.5 (3–10) hr. At 10 mg/kg, prolonged apnea (2–3 hr) was observed in 3/6 fish, 2/3 died under anesthesia, and 1/3 recovered 10 hr post-injection. Median peak sedation scores were 1.5, 2.5, and 5, at 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, respectively. A dosage of 10 mg/kg alfaxalone resulted in 33% mortality. The duration of anesthesia and opercular rate were unpredictable. Due to variation in response despite consistent conditions, as well as risk of mortality, intramuscular alfaxalone cannot be recommended for anesthesia in koi carp.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Bailey, Kate M. and Minter, Larry J. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Harms, Craig A. and Griffith, Emily H. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2014}, month={Dec}, pages={852–858} }
 @article{posner_mariani_swanson_asakawa_campbell_king_2014, title={Perianesthetic morbidity and mortality in dogs undergoing cervical and thoracolumbar spinal surgery}, volume={41}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12127}, DOI={10.1111/vaa.12127}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To evaluate and compare perioperative morbidity and mortality in dogs undergoing cervical and thoracolumbar spinal surgery.


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective case series.


ANIMALS
157 dogs undergoing cervical or thoracolumbar spinal surgery.


METHODS
Data were collected sequentially on canine cases presented from the Neurology Section of the North Carolina State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital for anesthesia and surgery for cervical spinal cord disease. Simultaneously, data were collected on all thoracolumbar spinal surgery cases during the same time period. Data included signalment, drugs administered, surgical approach, disease process, cardiac arrhythmias during anesthesia, and outcome.


RESULTS
Data were collected from 164 surgical events in 157 dogs. There were 52 cervical approaches; four dorsal and 48 ventral. All thoracolumbar surgeries were approached dorsolaterally. Four dogs 4/52 (7.6%) undergoing a cervical approach did not survive to discharge. Two dogs (2/8; 25%) underwent atlanto-axial (AA) stabilization and suffered cardiovascular arrest and two dogs (2/38; 5.2%) undergoing cervical ventral slot procedures were euthanized following anesthesia and surgery due to signs of aspiration pneumonia. All dogs undergoing thoracolumbar surgery survived until discharge (112/112). Mortality in dogs undergoing cervical spinal surgery was greater compared with dogs undergoing thoracolumbar spinal surgery (p = 0.009), however, in dogs undergoing decompressive disc surgery, intraoperative death rates were not different between dogs undergoing a cervical compared with thoracolumbar approaches (p = 0.32) nor was there a significant difference in overall mortality (p = 0.07).


CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Overall, dogs undergoing cervical spinal surgery were less likely to survive until discharge compared with dogs undergoing thoracolumbar spinal surgery. Mortality in dogs undergoing cervical intervertebral disc decompression surgery was no different than for dogs undergoing thoracolumbar intervertebral disc decompression surgery. However, dogs undergoing cervical intervertebral disc decompression surgery should be considered at risk for aspiration pneumonia.}, number={2}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Posner, Lysa P. and Mariani, Christopher L. and Swanson, Cliff and Asakawa, Makoto and Campbell, Nigel and King, Adam S.}, year={2014}, month={Mar}, pages={137–144} }
 @article{oda_bailey_lewbart_griffith_posner_2014, title={Physiologic and biochemical assessments of koi (Cyprinus carpio) following immersion in propofol}, volume={245}, ISSN={["1943-569X"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.245.11.1286}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={11}, journal={JAVMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Oda, Ayako and Bailey, Kate M. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Griffith, Emily H. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2014}, month={Dec}, pages={1286–1291} }
 @article{lockhart_motsinger-reif_simpson_posner_2014, title={Prevalence of onychectomy in cats presented for veterinary care near Raleigh, NC and educational attitudes toward the procedure}, volume={41}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12077}, DOI={10.1111/vaa.12077}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
The current prevalence of onychectomy (declawing) in cats is unknown, and education regarding the procedure appears to vary greatly among veterinary schools. The purpose of this project was to determine the prevalence of onychectomized cats near Raleigh, NC and to document the frequency and style (laboratory or lecture) with which the procedure is taught in USA veterinary schools.


ANIMALS
One thousand seven hundred ninety four cats ranging in age from 8 days to 21 years, of which 938 (52.3%) were female and 1719 (95.8%) were sterilized.


METHODS
Data were collected over a 10-week period regarding cats seen for appointments in five veterinary facilities (two cat-only, two general, and one tertiary). Data collection included signalment and onychectomy status. During this time, 28 veterinary schools were polled regarding education of veterinary students in onychectomy.


RESULTS
Three hundred and seventy four (20.8%) cats had undergone onychectomy. A significantly higher percentage of declawed cats were seen in the general practices compared with the other practice types (p < 0.030). Younger cats had a higher rate of onychectomy (p < 0.001). Twenty-six veterinary schools responded to the survey (93%). Fourteen (54%) of the responding schools did not include in their core curriculum a lecture or surgical laboratory providing instruction in the onychectomy procedure.


CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Almost 21% of cats seen in veterinary hospitals near Raleigh, NC were declawed. Less than 50% of veterinary schools in the USA include a mandatory lecture or laboratory to teach the procedure. There appears to be a discrepancy between the popularity of the onychectomy procedure and the emphasis placed on relevant instruction in veterinary schools in the USA.}, number={1}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Lockhart, Laura E and Motsinger-Reif, Alison A and Simpson, Wendy M and Posner, Lysa P}, year={2014}, month={Jan}, pages={48–53} }
 @article{posner_chinnadurai_2014, title={Recognition and treatment of pain in reptiles, amphibians, and fish}, journal={Pain Management in Veterinary Practice}, author={Posner, L. P. and Chinnadurai, S. K.}, year={2014}, pages={417–423} }
 @article{minter_bailey_harms_lewbart_posner_2014, title={The efficacy of alfaxalone for immersion anesthesia in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio)}, volume={41}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12113}, DOI={10.1111/vaa.12113}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To characterize the physiologic and behavioral effects of a single induction dose and two maintenance doses of alfaxalone delivered by water immersion in the anesthesia of koi (Cyprinus carpio).


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, within-subject complete crossover design.


ANIMALS
Six adult koi (Cyprinus carpio) with a median body weight of 344.5 g (range 292.0-405.0 g).


METHODS
Koi were immersed in water containing 10 mg L(-1) alfaxalone until immobile and then maintained with alfaxalone at either 1 or 2.5 mg L(-1) via a recirculating water system. Times for anesthetic induction and recovery periods were recorded. Physiologic and blood gas parameters were evaluated before, during and after the anesthetic trial. Response to noxious stimuli was also assessed.


RESULTS
Median anesthesia induction time for all fish was 5.4 minutes. Median recovery time was 11.8 and 26.4 minutes in the 1.0 and 2.5 mg L(-1) doses, respectively, which were significantly different (p = 0.04). Cessation of opercular movement occurred in 0/6 and 4/6 fish exposed to 1.0 and 2.5 mg L(-1) dose respectively. No difference was observed in median heart rate over the duration of the anesthetic events. Response to noxious stimulation was 4/6 and 0/6 in the 1.0 and 2.5 mg L(-1) doses respectively. Oxygenation and ventilation did not change during the experiment, but there was a significant decrease in blood pH along with an increase in blood lactate concentration.


CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Administration of alfaxalone, via water immersion, as an induction and maintenance anesthesia agent provided rapid and reliable anesthesia of koi with no mortality. The maintenance dose of 2.5 mg L(-1) was sufficient to prevent response to noxious stimuli but was associated with a clinically relevant depression in opercular rate.}, number={4}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Minter, Larry J and Bailey, Kate M and Harms, Craig A and Lewbart, Gregory A and Posner, Lysa P}, year={2014}, month={Jul}, pages={398–405} }
 @article{gjeltema_posner_stoskopf_2014, title={The use of injectable alphaxalone as a single agent and in combination with ketamine, xylazine, and morphine in the Chilean rose tarantula, Grammostola rosea}, volume={45}, DOI={10.1638/2013-0223.1}, abstractNote={Abstract:  This study evaluated the use of the injectable anesthetic, alphaxalone, as a single agent and in combination with ketamine, xylazine, and morphine in the Chilean rose tarantula, Grammostola rosea. Between two and four animals were evaluated for each anesthetic protocol, and two unanesthetized animals were evaluated for comparative purposes. Anesthetic duration, depth, and quality were assessed by scoring responses to tactile and trichobothria stimulation, muscle tone, purposeful movement, righting response, and heart rate throughout each anesthetic event. Alphaxalone administered into the dorsal opisthosoma in the location of the heart at 200 mg/kg produced moderate anesthetic effect with a median duration of 28 min (n = 3; range 25–50). A combination of 200 mg/kg of alphaxalone and 20 mg/kg of ketamine induced a deep anesthetic state with a median anesthetic duration of 27 min (n = 4; range 16–42). The combination of 200 mg/kg of alphaxalone and 20 mg/kg of xylazine produced deep anesthesia with a median duration of 70 min (n = 4; range 37–207). Morphine administered at 5 mg/kg 30 min prior to injection with 200 mg/kg alphaxalone had anesthetic durations of 9 and 30 min (n = 2). Heartbeats could not be detected for periods of 7–27 min following anesthetic induction for the majority of animals receiving the alphaxalone/ketamine and alphaxalone/xylazine anesthetic combinations. No mortality was associated with any of the anesthetic protocols used; however, ambient temperature and ecdysis were identified as important factors that may alter response to anesthetics in these animals.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, author={Gjeltema, J. and Posner, L. P. and Stoskopf, M.}, year={2014}, pages={792–801} }
 @article{posner_bailey_richardson_motsinger-reif_harms_2013, title={Alfaxalone anesthesia in bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeiana) by injection or immersion}, volume={44}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2013-0090R.1}, DOI={10.1638/2013-0090r.1}, abstractNote={This project evaluated alfaxalone, a neurosteroid, as an anesthetic in bullfrogs. Eight adult bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeiana), averaging 593 g (411-780 g) each, were used in a crossover design. Frogs were administered alfaxalone i.m. at 10, 12, 15, or 17.5 mg/kg with a 1-wk washout. Following injection, time to recumbency, first limb movement following induction, and recovery were recorded. Respiratory rate was recorded following injection and then every 15 min following induction. Heart rate was assessed via Doppler every 15 min following induction. At 20 and 40 min, a 25-ga needle was inserted in a thigh muscle to assess response to noxious stimuli. Frogs were also immersed in 2 g/L of alfaxalone for up to 30 min and similarly assessed. At dosages of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, the median time to recumbency was 15.4, 12.6, 12.3, and 6.6 min, respectively. At dosages of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, median time to first limb movement was 68.5, 77.5, 89.0, and 115 min, respectively. At dosages of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, median time to recovery was 90, 68.5, 124.5, 115 min, respectively. Following induction, at 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/kg, median heart rate was 42, 40, 40, and 42, respectively; and median respiratory rate was 44, 36, 29, and 35, respectively. Following administration of 10, 12, 15, and 17.5 mg/ kg, 8/8, 6/8, 7/8, and 8/8 frogs, respectively, responded to needle insertion. None of the frogs dosed by immersion became anesthetized. Intramuscular alfaxalone produced immobilization in frogs but did not provide sufficient anesthesia to prevent response to noxious stimuli. Alfaxalone immersion at 2 g/L for 30 min did not produce immobilization or anesthesia.}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Posner, Lysa Pam and Bailey, Kate M. and Richardson, Erika Y. and Motsinger-Reif, Alison A. and Harms, Craig A.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={965–971} }
 @article{posner_willcox_suter_2013, title={Apheresis in three dogs weighing <14 kg}, volume={40}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12026}, DOI={10.1111/vaa.12026}, abstractNote={HISTORY
CaridianBCT apheresis machines require a ~285 mL priming volume (extracorporeal blood) that is withdrawn from the patient in ~10 minutes. Therefore, apheresis in dogs has generally been limited to dogs > ~20 kg to assure <20% of the blood volume is removed in the priming phase. ANIMALS/PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: Three dogs weighing <14 kg (13.6, 10.5, and 9.9 kg) with lymphoma that underwent apheresis.


MANAGEMENT
The dogs were premedicated for placement of apheresis catheters with hydromorphone (0.1 mg kg(-1) ) IM. Anesthesia was induced with propofol, to effect, intravenously and general anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. Following catheter placement, dogs were allowed to recover from isoflurane but were kept sedated with either a dexmedetomidine constant rate infusion (CRI) or a propofol CRI. Real time autologous blood priming was not performed in any of the dogs. Instead, priming solutions were composed of a combination of hetastarch, lactated Ringer's solution, and/or autologous blood that was harvested 4 days before the procedure. During apheresis, dogs received anticoagulant citrate-dextrose, solution-A (ACD-A) to prevent clotting and 10% calcium gluconate as needed to maintain normal ionized calcium concentrations. Dogs were monitored for cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary stability, anemia and lactic acidosis.


FOLLOW-UP
All of the dogs had cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary values within clinically acceptable ranges. Immediately following apheresis all of the dogs were mildly to moderately anemic (PCV; 17-35%) although none of the dogs required a transfusion or had an increased lactate concentration.


CONCLUSIONS
Dogs as small as 9.9 kg can successfully undergo apheresis with a variety of priming solutions. Dexmedetomidine or propofol given as a CRI provides sufficient sedation for this procedure.}, number={4}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Posner, Lysa P and Willcox, Jennifer L and Suter, Steven E}, year={2013}, month={Jul}, pages={403–409} }
 @article{stevens_posner_jones_lascelles_2013, title={Comparison of the effect of intratesticular lidocaine/bupivacaine vs. saline placebo on pain scores and incision site reactions in dogs undergoing routine castration}, volume={196}, ISSN={1090-0233}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.11.019}, DOI={10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.11.019}, abstractNote={Post-operative pain scores and incision site reactions were compared in healthy dogs undergoing routine castration at a county animal shelter and assigned to two treatment groups, namely: (1) lidocaine/bupivacaine (1mg/kg lidocaine+1mg/kg bupivacaine mixture; n=17), or (2) placebo (0.9% saline; n=16), administered via intratesticular injection. Dogs were injected with an equivalent volume of solution based on bodyweight. Premedication, induction and anesthetic maintenance protocols were identical in all animals. Pain scores were assessed at 15min, 60min, 120min and 24h post-recovery from anesthesia. Surgical site evaluation based on swelling and bruising was evaluated at 24h. The addition of lidocaine/bupivacaine did not impact pain scores compared to the saline placebo (P>0.05). Incision site reactions were statistically similar between the two groups.}, number={3}, journal={The Veterinary Journal}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Stevens, B.J. and Posner, L.P. and Jones, C.A. and Lascelles, B.D.}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={499–503} }
 @article{minter_harms_archibald_broadhurst_bailey_christiansen_lewbart_posner_2013, title={Efficacy of alfaxalone for intravascular anesthesia and euthanasia in blue crabs (callinectes sapidus)}, volume={44}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2012-0285r1.1}, DOI={10.1638/2012-0285r1.1}, abstractNote={The objective of this study was to characterize the behavioral effects and changes in heart rate of four doses of alfaxalone delivered by intravascular injection to blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Thirty (male, n = 27; female, n = 3) blue crabs were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups of alfaxalone: eight animals were assigned to each of the 5-, 10-, and 15-mg/kg treatment groups, and the remaining six animals were assigned to the 100-mg/kg group. Times for anesthetic induction and recovery periods were recorded. Righting reflex, defensive posturing, and heart rate were evaluated before, during, and after the anesthetic trial. Anesthesia was induced in all 14 animals consolidated into the high-dosage group (15 mg/kg [n = 8] and 100 mg/kg [n = 6]), which was significantly greater than 8 of 16 animals in the low-dosage group (5 mg/kg [n = 2] and 10 mg/kg [n = 6]). Median anesthesia induction time for all crabs was 0.4 min, with no significant difference in induction time between groups observed. Median recovery time was 9.4 min (n = 2), 6.1 min (n = 5), 11.3 min (n = 8), and 66.1 min (n = 5) for the 5-, 10-, 15-, and 100-mg/kg groups, respectively. Recovery times were significantly longer for crabs exposed to an induction dose of 100 mg/kg compared with the 10- and 15-mg/kg induction doses. A significant decrease in the median heart rate was observed between the baseline value and that observed at both induction and 5 min postinjection in the 100-mg/kg dose trial. Two mortalities were observed during the anesthesia trials (n = 1, 10 mg/kg; n = 1, 100 mg/kg), both associated with the autotomization of limbs. In summary, the intravascular administration of alfaxalone at 15 mg/kg provided rapid and reliable sedation, whereas alfaxalone administered at 100 mg/kg produced rapid and long lasting anesthesia.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Minter, Larry J. and Harms, Craig A. and Archibald, Kate E and Broadhurst, Heather and Bailey, Kate M. and Christiansen, Emily F. and Lewbart, Gregory A. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2013}, month={Sep}, pages={694–699} }
 @article{bailey_hempstead_tobias_borst_clode_posner_2013, title={Evaluation of the effects of tricaine methanesulfonate on retinal structure and function in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio)}, volume={242}, ISSN={0003-1488}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.242.11.1578}, DOI={10.2460/javma.242.11.1578}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={11}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Bailey, Kate M. and Hempstead, Julie E. and Tobias, Jeremy R. and Borst, Luke B. and Clode, Alison B. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={1578–1582} }
 @article{posner_kasten_kata_2013, title={Propofol with ketamine following sedation with xylazine for routine induction of general anaesthesia in horses}, volume={173}, ISSN={0042-4900 2042-7670}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.101906}, DOI={10.1136/vr.101906}, abstractNote={To document the suitability of intravenous propofol and ketamine following sedation with xylazine for routine anaesthetic induction in horses. Retrospective. 100 client‐owned horses. Anaesthetic records were evaluated to determine: signalment, anaesthetic drug and dosages, need for additional induction agents, notation of any adverse events, duration of anaesthesia and recovery characteristics (rough or smooth, and rapid or prolonged). Horses were sedated with xylazine 0.99±(0.2) mg/kg intravenous and 23 horses were also administered butorphanol 0.02±(0.001) mg/kg intravenous. Horses were anaesthetised with a combination of propofol 0.40±(0.1) mg/kg intravenous and ketamine 2.8±(0.3) mg/kg intravenous. Six horses required additional ketamine. None became apnoeic and no adverse events were noted. Anaesthesia was maintained with isoflurane in 66 horses and a combination of guaifenesin, ketamine and xylazine (GKX) in 34 horses. Total anaesthesia time was 125.4±(46) minutes. Fifty‐one horses were administered romifidine 0.016 (±0.008) mg/kg intravenous at recovery. Time from orotracheal extubation to standing was 27.6±(25) minutes. Of the 58 records with recovery characteristics, the number per category was: rapid n=6, prolonged n=3, smooth n=46, rough n=6. Intravenous propofol and ketamine following xylazine provided satisfactory anaesthetic inductions and recoveries in a varied population of horses without any clinically relevant adverse events.}, number={22}, journal={Veterinary Record}, publisher={BMJ}, author={Posner, L. P. and Kasten, J. I. and Kata, C.}, year={2013}, month={Nov}, pages={550–550} }
 @article{posner_scott_law_2013, title={Repeated exposure of goldfish (Carassius auratus) to tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222)}, volume={44}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2012-0151r1.1}, DOI={10.1638/2012-0151r1.1}, abstractNote={Abstract:  Goldfish that have been repeatedly exposed to tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) require greater concentration of the drug to attain equivalent planes of anesthesia, but the mechanism for this increased anesthetic need is unknown. Minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) is a commonly used method with which to compare anesthetics. It was hypothesized that fish exposed to MS-222 daily would have an increased MAC. It was also hypothesized that fish exposed daily to MS-222 would develop histomorphologic changes to their gills to explain the increasing demand. Forty-nine Serasa comet goldfish were enrolled and were divided into three populations (n = 15, n = 15, and n = 19). In trial 1, using an up–down method, MAC was determined daily after 4 min of exposure to MS-222 for which the starting concentration was 160 mg/L. In trial 2, MAC was determined following 2 min of exposure to MS-222 for which the starting concentration was 260 mg/L. In trial 3, four naive fish were euthanatized and gills collected for histology and electron microscopy (EM). The remaining fish were exposed to MS-222 daily for 4 wk. Four fish were euthanatized and their gills submitted for similar examination at 2 wk and 4 wk. MAC for fish exposed to MS-222 for 4 min increased from 120 to 160 mg/L. The regression line had a slope of 1.51 ± 0.26 (R2 = 0.65; P < 0.0001). MAC for fish exposed to MS-222 for 2 min increased from 210 pmm to 220 mg/L; the regression line had a slope of 0.52 ± 0.38 (R2 = 0.12; P = 0.2). Histologic and EM examination of gills did not show morphologic changes indicative of a reaction to MS-222. Goldfish in this study had an increased requirement for MS-222 following daily exposure for 4 min but not following daily exposure for 2 min at a higher concentration. The cause of this increased anesthetic need is not related to morphologic changes to the gills.}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Posner, Lysa Pam and Scott, Gregory N. and Law, J. McHugh}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={340–347} }
 @article{ward_mccartney_chinnadurai_posner_2012, title={Development of a Minimum-Anesthetic-Concentration Depression Model To Study The Effects Of Various Analgesics In Goldfish (Carassius Auratus)}, volume={43}, ISSN={1042-7260 1937-2825}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2010-0088.1}, DOI={10.1638/2010-0088.1}, abstractNote={Abstract:  Teleost fish demonstrate the neurophysiologic capacity to experience pain and analgesia. A common model for assessing analgesic effect is the reduction of minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC). The present study adapted the model of MAC depression to evaluate the analgesic effects of morphine, butorphanol, medetomidine, and ketoprofen in goldfish (Carassius auratus). MAC was determined by an up–down method of sequential population sampling, anesthetizing fish with tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) in concentration increments of 10 parts per million (ppm), and using intramuscular needle insertion as a supramaximal noxious stimulus. Baseline MAC was determined in triplicate at the beginning (MACi) and conclusion (MACf) of the experiment (approximately 60 days). For drug trials, MAC was redetermined 1 hr after administration of morphine (10, 20, 40 mg/kg i.m.), butorphanol (0.1, 0.2, 0.4 mg/kg i.m.), medetomidine (0.01, 0.015, 0.025 mg/kg i.m.), ketoprofen (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg i.m.), or saline control. Each drug/dose was tested in random order with a >6-day washout period. MACi and MACf were 163 and 182 ppm, respectively, and were significantly different from each other (P = 0.02). All doses of morphine and ketoprofen decreased MAC below MACi. The highest dose of medetomidine decreased MAC below MACi. The lowest dose of butorphanol decreased MAC below MACi, but higher doses increased MAC above MACf. The authors conclude that MAC determination in fish using MS-222 was feasible and reproducible in the short term. The fact that MAC increased over time and/or exposure may limit the usefulness of MS-222 in MAC depression studies. Morphine and ketoprofen decrease anesthetic needs in goldfish and may provide analgesia.}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, publisher={American Association of Zoo Veterinarians}, author={Ward, Jessica L and McCartney, Sean P and Chinnadurai, Sathya K and Posner, Lysa P}, year={2012}, month={Jun}, pages={214–222} }
 @article{minter_clarke_gjeltema_archibald_posner_lewbart_2011, title={EFFECTS OF INTRAMUSCULAR MELOXICAM ADMINISTRATION ON PROSTAGLANDIN E2 SYNTHESIS IN THE NORTH AMERICAN BULLFROG (RANA CATESBEIANA)}, volume={42}, ISSN={["1937-2825"]}, DOI={10.1638/2011-0126.1}, abstractNote={Abstract:  Meloxicam is a commonly used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in veterinary medicine, but its use in amphibians has not been reported in the literature. NSAIDs are known to act by providing anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions by inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the intramuscular administration of meloxicam would decrease the circulating serum PGE2 levels in the North American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) following tissue trauma induced by a punch biopsy. Eighteen adult North American bullfrogs were randomly assigned to two treatment groups: meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg i.m.) and control (0.9% saline i.m.). Blood was obtained via cardiocentesis immediately prior to administration of the two treatment regimes and serum was frozen. A 4-mm punch biopsy was taken from the right triceps femoris muscle to induce an inflammatory response. Twenty-four hours later, a second blood sample was collected and serum was harvested and frozen. Serum PGE2 concentrations were measured using a commercial PGE2 enzyme assay (EIA) kit. Twenty-four hours following the biopsy, the mean circulating PGE2 levels of animals treated with meloxicam was 57.79 ± 12.35 pg/ml, which did not differ significantly from animals that were treated with saline (85.63 ± 17.55 pg/ml, P ≥ 0.05). The calculated means of the absolute change between the circulating baseline PGE2 levels and the postinjury circulating PGE2 levels were significantly lower in animals treated with meloxicam (13.11 ± 17.31 pg/ml) than in control animals treated with saline (46.14 ± 38.02 pg/ml) (P ≤ 0.05). These results suggest that the systemic administration of meloxicam at a dosage of 0.1 mg/kg once daily suppresses circulating serum PGE2 levels postinjury in the North American bullfrog.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Minter, Larry J. and Clarke, Elsburgh O. and Gjeltema, Jenessa L. and Archibald, Kate E. and Posner, Lysa P. and Lewbart, Gregory A.}, year={2011}, month={Dec}, pages={680–685} }
 @article{messenger_davis_lafevers_barlow_posner_2011, title={Intravenous and sublingual buprenorphine in horses: pharmacokinetics and influence of sampling site}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-2995.2011.00613.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To describe the pharmacokinetics and adverse effects of intravenous (IV) and sublingual (SL) buprenorphine in horses, and to determine the effect of sampling site on plasma concentrations after SL administration.


STUDY DESIGN
Randomized crossover experiment; prospective study.


ANIMALS
Eleven healthy adult horses between 6 and 20 years of age and weighing 487-592 kg.


METHODS
In the first phase; buprenorphine was administered as a single IV or SL dose (0.006 mg kg(-1)) and pharmacokinetic parameters were determined for each route of administration using a noncompartmental model. In the second phase; the jugular and lateral thoracic veins were catheterized for simultaneous venous blood sampling, following a dose of 0.006 mg kg(-1) SL buprenorphine. For both phases, plasma buprenorphine concentrations were measured using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. At each sampling period, horses were assessed for behavioral excitement and gastrointestinal motility.


RESULTS
Following IV administration, buprenorphine mean ± SD half-life was 5.79 ± 1.09 hours. Systemic clearance (Cl) following IV administration was 6.13 ± 0.86 mL kg(-1) minute(-1) and volume of distribution at steady-state was 3.16 ± 0.65 L kg(-1). Following IV administration, horses showed signs of excitement. Gastrointestinal sounds were decreased following both routes of administration; however, none of the horses exhibited signs of colic. There was a significant discrepancy between plasma buprenorphine concentrations measured in the jugular vein versus the lateral thoracic vein following phase 2, thus pharmacokinetic parameters following SL buprenorphine are not reported.


CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Buprenorphine has a long plasma half-life and results in plasma concentrations that are consistent with analgesia in other species for up to 4 hours following IV administration of this dose in horses. While buprenorphine is absorbed into the circulation following SL administration, jugular venous sampling gave a false measurement of the quantity absorbed and should not be used to study the uptake from SL administration.}, number={4}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Messenger, Kristen M. and Davis, Jennifer L. and LaFevers, Douglas H. and Barlow, Beth M. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2011}, month={Jul}, pages={374–384} }
 @article{davis_messenger_lafevers_barlow_posner_2011, title={Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and intramuscular buprenorphine in the horse}, volume={35}, ISSN={["0140-7783"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2885.2011.01284.x}, abstractNote={Davis, J. L., Messenger, K. M., LaFevers, D. H., Barlow, B. M., Posner, L. P. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and intramuscular buprenorphine in the horse.J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap. 35, 52–58.}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics}, author={Davis, J.L. and Messenger, K.M. and Lafevers, D.H. and Barlow, B.M. and Posner, L.P.}, year={2011}, month={Mar}, pages={52–58} }
 @article{posner_pavuk_rokshar_carter_levine_2010, title={Effects of opioids and anesthetic drugs on body temperature in cats}, volume={37}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00508.x}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00508.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To determine which class of opioid alone or in conjunction with other anesthetic drugs causes post-anesthetic hyperthermia in cats.


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, randomized, crossover study.


ANIMALS
Eight adult, healthy, cats (four spayed females and four castrated males weighing 3.8 +/- 0.6 kg).


METHODS
Each cat was instrumented with a wireless thermistor in the abdominal cavity. Temperature in all phases was recorded every 5 minutes for 5 hours. Population body temperature (PBT) was recorded for approximately 8 days. Baseline body temperature is the final 24 hours of the PBT. All injectable drugs were given intramuscularly. The cats were administered drugs in four phases: 1) hydromorphone (H) 0.05, 0.1, or 0.2 mg kg(-1); 2) morphine (M) (0.5 mg kg(-1)), buprenorphine (BUP) (0.02 mg kg(-1)), or butorphanol (BUT) (0.2 mg kg(-1)); 3) ketamine (K) (5 mg kg(-1)) or ketamine (5 mg kg(-1)) plus hydromorphone (0.1 mg kg(-1)) (KH); 4) isoflurane in oxygen for 1 hour. Fifteen minutes prior to inhalant anesthetic, cats received either no premed (I), hydromorphone (0.1 mg kg(-1)) (IH), or hydromorphone (0.1 mg kg(-1)) plus ketamine (5 mg kg(-1)) (IHK).


RESULTS
Mean PBT for all unmedicated cats was 38.9 +/- 0.6 degrees C (102.0 +/- 1 degrees F). The temperature of cats administered all doses of hydromorphone increased from baseline (p < 0.03) All four opioids (H, M, BUP and BUT) studied increased body temperature compared with baseline (p < 0.005). A significant difference was observed between baseline temperature values and those in treatment KH (p < 0.03). Following recovery from anesthesia, temperature in treatments IH and IHK was different from baseline (p < 0.002).


CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
All of the opioids tested, alone or in combination with ketamine or isoflurane, caused an increase in body temperature. The increase seen was mild to moderate (<40.1 degrees C (104.2 degrees F) and self limiting.}, number={1}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Posner, Lysa P and Pavuk, Alana A and Rokshar, Jennifer L and Carter, Jennifer E and Levine, Jay F}, year={2010}, month={Jan}, pages={35–43} }
 @article{gookin_mcwhorter_vaden_posner_2010, title={Outcome assessment of a computer-animated model for learning about the regulation of glomerular filtration rate}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1043-4046"]}, DOI={10.1152/advan.00012.2010}, abstractNote={ The regulation of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a particularly important and challenging concept for students to integrate into a memorable framework for building further knowledge and solving clinical problems. In this study, 76 first-year veterinary students and 19 veterinarians in clinical specialty training (house officers) participated in separate online exercises to evaluate the use of a computer-animated model of GFR regulation ( www.aamc.org/mededportal ) on learning outcome. Students were randomly allocated to study either the animated model or written materials before completion of a 10-question multiple-choice quiz. House officers completed a 35-question test before and after study of the animated model. Both groups completed a survey about the learning exercise. The ability of the model to enhance learning was demonstrated by a significant improvement ( P < 0.001) in the test performance of house officers after studying the model. The model performed similarly to written materials alone in affecting the subsequent quiz performance of the students. The majority of students and house officers agreed or strongly agreed that the animated model was easy to understand, improved their knowledge and appreciation of the importance of GFR regulation, and that they would recommend the model to peers. Most students [63 of 76 students (83%)] responded that they would prefer the use of the animated model alone over the study of written materials but acknowledged that a combination of hardcopy written notes and the animated model would be ideal. A greater applicability of the model to more advanced students and an introduction in a didactic setting before individual study were suggested by the house officers. The results of this study suggest that the animated model is a useful, effective, and well-received tool for learning and creating a visual memory of the regulatory mechanisms of GFR. }, number={2}, journal={ADVANCES IN PHYSIOLOGY EDUCATION}, author={Gookin, Jody L. and McWhorter, Dan and Vaden, Shelly and Posner, Lysa}, year={2010}, month={Jun}, pages={97–105} }
 @article{carter_campbell_posner_swanson_2010, title={The hemodynamic effects of medetomidine continuous rate infusions in the dog}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00522.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To characterize the hemodynamic effects of continuous rate infusions (CRI) of medetomidine administered at doses ranging from 0 to 3 microg kg(-1) hour(-1).


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, blinded, randomized experimental trial.


ANIMALS
Six adult purpose-bred mongrel dogs.


METHODS
Anesthesia was induced with sevoflurane for placement of arterial and venous catheters. Dogs recovered from anesthesia after which baseline hemodynamic measurements were obtained via lithium dilution cardiac output (CO) determination, with subsequent measurements via pulse power analysis to provide continuous CO determinations. Medetomidine, 1, 2, or 3 microg kg(-1) hour(-1) or a volume equivalent placebo, was administered via CRI for 60 minutes. Systolic, mean, and diastolic arterial pressure, heart rate (HR), CO and stroke volume were measured and stroke index (SI), cardiac index (CI), total peripheral resistance (TPR), and total peripheral resistance index (TPRI) were calculated at 3, 7, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 minutes from the start of the infusion.


RESULTS
Increase in dose decreased SI by 25%, 19%, and 30%, HR by 33%, 57%, and 60%, CI by 50%, 65%, 70% and increased TPRI by 109%, 235%, and 222% from baseline to the 60-minute measurement for the 1, 2, and 3 microg kg(-1) hour(-1) doses, respectively. HR, TPRI, and CI all showed significant differences over the duration of the study from the placebo treatment.


CONCLUSIONS
Medetomidine CRI produces clinically relevant changes in CO, TPR, and HR. The demonstrated decrease in CO is largely because of bradycardia and the degree of cardiovascular depression appears to be dose-dependent. These findings are consistent with previously described hemodynamic changes with single bolus administration of medetomidine.


CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Low-dose medetomidine CRIs produce clinically relevant hemodynamic depression at doses as low as 1 microg kg(-1) hour(-1) and should be used cautiously in dogs.}, number={3}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Carter, Jennifer E. and Campbell, Nigel B. and Posner, Lysa P. and Swanson, Cliff}, year={2010}, month={May}, pages={197–206} }
 @article{posner_2009, title={Pain and Distress in Fish: A Review of the Evidence Introduction}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1084-2020"]}, DOI={10.1093/ilar.50.4.327}, abstractNote={A s evidenced in Paleolithic cave paintings of fi sh dating from 17,000 years ago, human-fi sh interactions have existed for thousands of years (Valladas et al. 2001). The earliest interactions likely involved fi sh as food and were necessarily tied to geographic access (i.e., island or coastal locations). Over time, the establishment of farm fi shing and the emergence of modern capture and transportation methods for wild-caught fi sh have encouraged more widespread consumption of fi sh, as have the health benefi ts of fi sh as a dietary component (Calder and Yaqoob 2009). According to the WorldFish Center, worldwide per capita fi sh consumption doubled in the past half-century, from about 8 kilograms in the early 1950s to about 15.8 kg in 1999 (Ahmed 2009). As societies moved beyond survival needs, human-fi sh interactions developed beyond those of fi sh as food. Angling and sport fi shing have become common practices in which not all fi sh caught are used for food. But there is controversy in both the scientifi c literature and the general press about whether catch and release methods are distressful for fi sh or inhumane. The Chinese developed another nonfood use for fi sh: reports from the Sung dynasty, dating back to 960 AD, indicate that keeping ornamental fi sh in ponds was a hobby for the privileged. Today in China and other countries, the confi nement of ornamental and tropical fi sh both publicly (in aquaria) and privately (in ponds and tanks) is still quite popular. As with the arguments against sport fi shing, however, there is controversy about the appropriateness of keeping fi sh simply for human pleasure. More recently, the use of fi sh as research animals has increased signifi cantly. Although fi sh were the subject of scholarly articles from the 1860s (Ransom 1867), the accounts were primarily descriptive of fi sh anatomy and physiology. In the early 1950s, the research focus shifted with the Lysa Pam Posner}, number={4}, journal={ILAR JOURNAL}, author={Posner, Lysa Pam}, year={2009}, pages={327–328} }
 @article{clark-price_posner_gleed_2008, title={Recovery of horses from general anesthesia in a darkened or illuminated recovery stall}, volume={35}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2008.00414.x}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-2995.2008.00414.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To assess whether recovery from general anesthesia, in an illuminated or a darkened stall, has an effect on time to first movement, time to standing, and recovery score.


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective randomized clinical study.


ANIMALS
Twenty-nine healthy, 2- to 5-year-old horses undergoing surgical correction of dorsal displacement of the soft palate.


METHODS
Each horse was assigned randomly to recover in either an illuminated (n = 15) or a darkened stall (n = 14). For pre-anesthetic medication, all horses received intravenous (IV) xylazine (0.4 mg kg(-1)) and butorphanol (0.02 mg kg(-1)). Anesthesia was induced with midazolam (0.1 mg kg(-1)) and ketamine (2.2 mg kg(-1)) IV and maintained on isoflurane in oxygen. Vital parameters, end-tidal CO(2) and isoflurane were recorded at 5-minute intervals. At the conclusion of anesthesia, horses were placed in either an illuminated or a darkened stall and xylazine (0.2 mg kg(-1)) IV was administered at extubation. Video cameras were used to record the horses while they were allowed to recover undisturbed. Video recordings were later viewed and recoveries were evaluated on a 100-point scale by three graders.


RESULTS
Horses in illuminated and darkened recovery stalls were evaluated on total anesthesia time, minimum alveolar concentration hours of isoflurane, time to first movement, time to standing, and total recovery score. There were no significant differences between the two groups in any of the measured parameters.


CONCLUSION
Recovering horses in a darkened versus an illuminated recovery stall may provide no benefit.


CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Darkening the recovery stalls for horses recovering from general anesthesia may be unnecessary.}, number={6}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Clark-Price, Stuart C and Posner, Lysa P and Gleed, Robin D}, year={2008}, month={Nov}, pages={473–479} }
 @article{posner_asakawa_erb_2008, title={Use of propofol for anesthesia in cats with primary hepatic lipidosis: 44 cases (1995-2004)}, volume={232}, ISSN={["1943-569X"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.232.12.1841}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={12}, journal={JAVMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Posner, Lysa P. and Asakawa, Makoto and Erb, Hollis N.}, year={2008}, month={Jun}, pages={1841–1843} }
 @article{verenich_arumugam_shim_pourdeyhimi_2007, title={Effect of cellulase pretreatment of raw and bleached cotton fibers on properties of hydroentangled nonwoven fabrics}, volume={105}, ISSN={0021-8995 1097-4628}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/app.26158}, DOI={10.1002/app.26158}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Applied Polymer Science}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Verenich, S. and Arumugam, K. and Shim, E. and Pourdeyhimi, B.}, year={2007}, pages={492–499} }
 @article{asakawa_ludders_badgley_erb_gleed_posner_2007, title={Effects of adenosine infusion on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane in dogs}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1467-2995"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-2995.2006.00286.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To determine the effects of adenosine infusion on the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in dogs.


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, randomized crossover study.


ANIMALS
Seven adult male and female Beagles weighing 10.9 (7.5, 13.6) kg [median (minimum, maximum)].


METHODS
Each dog was anesthetized with isoflurane in oxygen and randomly assigned to receive either an intravenous (IV) adenosine (0.3 mg kg(-1) minute(-1)) or saline (6 mL kg(-1) hour(-1) IV) infusion. After an interval of 7 days or more, each dog was re-anesthetized and treated with the alternative infusion. Using a tail-clamp technique, MAC was determined before (pre-infusion), during (infusion), and 2 hours after the infusions (post-infusion).


RESULTS
The pre-infusion MAC of isoflurane was 1.25 (1.15, 1.35) [median (minimum, maximum)] vol.% for the saline treatment group and 1.25 (1.05, 1.45) vol.% for the adenosine treatment group, and did not differ significantly between the two treatments. The infusion MAC values were not significantly different (p = 0.16) and were 1.25 (0.95, 1.35) vol.% and 1.05 (1.00, 1.25) vol.%, respectively. The post-infusion MAC values differed significantly (p = 0.016); MAC was 1.15 (1.15, 1.35) vol.% and 1.05 (1.05, 1.25) vol.% for the saline and adenosine treatment groups, respectively. During infusion, mean arterial blood pressure decreased significantly (p = 0.008) during adenosine treatment compared with the saline 66 mmHg (52, 72) and 91 mmHg (68, 110), respectively. End-tidal CO2 (Pe'CO2), urine production, hematocrit, and plasma total solids did not differ significantly between the two treatments at any time (all p > 0.05).


CONCLUSION
Although the MAC of isoflurane in dogs was not decreased significantly during infusion with adenosine (0.3 mg kg(-1) minute(-1)), it was significantly decreased post-infusion, but only by 0.1 vol.%, an amount not considered clinically important. Adenosine infusion decreased mean arterial pressure by 27% and did not adversely affect renal function.}, number={1}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Asakawa, Makoto and Ludders, John W. and Badgley, Britton L. and Erb, Hollis N. and Gleed, Robin D. and Posner, Lysa P.}, year={2007}, month={Jan}, pages={9–14} }
 @article{davis_posner_elce_2007, title={Gabapentin for the treatment of neuropathic pain in a pregnant horse}, volume={231}, ISSN={["1943-569X"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.231.5.755}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={5}, journal={JAVMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Davis, Jennifer L. and Posner, Lysa P. and Elce, Yvonne}, year={2007}, month={Sep}, pages={755–758} }
 @article{cunha_carter_grafinger_montgomery_marks_posner_burns_2007, title={Intrathecal morphine overdose in a dog}, volume={230}, ISSN={["0003-1488"]}, DOI={10.2460/javma.230.11.1665}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={11}, journal={JAVMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION}, author={Cunha, Anderson F. and Carter, Jennifer E. and Grafinger, Michael and Montgomery, Heather and Marks, Steven L. and Posner, Lysa P. and Burns, Patrick}, year={2007}, month={Jun}, pages={1665–1668} }
 @article{posner_gleed_erb_ludders_2007, title={Post-anesthetic hyperthermia in cats}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1467-2987"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-2995.2006.00287.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To assess whether administration of hydromorphone and, or ketamine are associated with post-anesthetic hyperthermia in cats undergoing routine surgery.


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective clinical study.


ANIMALS
Forty healthy, adult cats undergoing ovariohysterectomy (OVH), castration, or declaw surgery.


MATERIALS AND METHODS
Each cat was assigned randomly to one of four groups (n = 10). For pre-anesthetic medication, all cats received subcutaneous (SC) glycopyrrolate (0.01 mg kg(-1)) and acepromazine (0.02 mg kg(-1)) and either hydromorphone (0.1 mg kg(-1) SC) or medetomidine (7.5 microg kg(-1) SC). Anesthesia was induced with either diazepam (0.1 mg kg(-1)) and ketamine (5 mg kg(-1)) or propofol (6 mg kg(-1) injected to effect). Group 1 (HDK) received hydromorphone and diazepam-ketamine. Group 2 (HP) received hydromorphone and propofol. Group 3 (MDK) received medetomidine and diazepam-ketamine. Group 4 (MP) received medetomidine and propofol. Rectal temperature was measured before drugs were given, at tracheal extubation and at hourly intervals for 5 hours thereafter.


RESULTS
During the 5 hours after anesthesia and surgery, at least one cat in every group had a rectal temperature >39.2 degrees C (102.5 degrees F). The percentage of observations for which a cat's temperature exceeded its pre-anesthetic temperature in groups HDK, HP, MDK, and MP were 86%, 80%, 25%, and 34%, respectively. Maximum temperatures in groups HDK, HP, MDK, and MP were 41.6 degrees C (107.0 degrees F), 40.3 degrees C (104.2 degrees F), 39.2 degrees C (102.6 degrees F), and 40.1 degrees C (104.1 degrees F), respectively. By 5 hours after tracheal extubation there were no differences in temperature between the treatment groups.


CONCLUSION
For up to 5 hours following anesthesia and surgery, cats might have body temperatures that exceed their pre-anesthesia body temperatures. The use of hydromorphone is associated with post-anesthetic hyperthermia. However, hyperthermia may occur when other drugs are used.


CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Cats given hydromorphone should be closely monitored for hyperthermia following anesthesia and surgery.}, number={1}, journal={VETERINARY ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA}, author={Posner, Lysa P. and Gleed, Robin D. and Erb, Hollis N. and Ludders, John W.}, year={2007}, month={Jan}, pages={40–47} }
 @article{posner_woodie_curtis_erb_gilbert_adams_gleed_2005, title={Acid-base, blood gas, and physiologic parameters during laparoscopy in the head-down position in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)}, volume={36}, ISSN={["1042-7260"]}, DOI={10.1638/04-072.1}, abstractNote={Abstract The objective of this project was to evaluate the acid-base, blood gas, and physiologic parameters of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) during laparoscopy in the head-down position. Eleven white-tailed does were captured and then immobilized with xylazine (6 mg/kg i.m.) and ketamine (7 mg/kg i.m.). The deer were intubated orotracheally and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The deer were positioned in dorsal recumbency and positive pressure ventilated. Heart rate (HR), arterial blood pressure, end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration (FE/CO2), and CO2 insufflation pressure were recorded every 5 min. Respiratory parameters, plasma electrolytes, and peak inspiratory pressure were measured immediately before tilting deer in the head-down position (45–55°), 5 min after tilting, and immediately before the end of the procedure (while tilted). Butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg i.m.) was administered at the end of the procedure and yohimbine (0.2 mg/kg i.v.) administered before release. The deer weighed 52 kg (28–70 kg) [median (minimum—maximum)]. The peak inspiratory pressure in dorsal recumbency while still horizontal was 25 cm H2O (16–28 cm H2O), which increased to 29 cm H2O (18–46 cm H2O) after tilting (P = 0.02). PaO2, PaCO2, FE/CO2, and pH did not change after tilting in the head-down position or after insufflation. HR did not change during the anesthetic period. Mean arterial pressure did not change after tilting or abdominal insufflation, but decreased by the end of the anesthetic period (approximately 1 hr). Time from intubation to extubation was 117 min (72–170 min) (n = 5) and surgery time was 31 min (17–60 min; n = 10). We conclude that captured white-tailed deer have minimal derangements to acid-base, blood gas, or physiologic parameters during laparoscopy in the head-down position with abdominal insufflation, and thus this procedure may be performed safely in ventilated white-tailed deer.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE}, author={Posner, LP and Woodie, JB and Curtis, PD and Erb, HN and Gilbert, R and Adams, WA and Gleed, RD}, year={2005}, month={Dec}, pages={642–647} }
 @article{posner_erb_gleed_2005, title={The HemoCueR for point-of-care hemoglobin measurement and packed cell volume estimation in cats}, volume={15}, ISSN={1479-3261 1476-4431}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-4431.2005.04034.x}, DOI={10.1111/j.1476-4431.2005.04034.x}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Posner, Lysa P. and Erb, Hollis N. and Gleed, Robin D.}, year={2005}, month={Mar}, pages={22–25} }
 @article{smith_posner_goldstein_ludders_erb_simpson_gleed_2004, title={Evaluation of the effects of premedication on gastroduodenoscopy in cats}, volume={225}, ISSN={0003-1488}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.540}, DOI={10.2460/javma.2004.225.540}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={4}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Smith, Alison A. and Posner, Lysa P. and Goldstein, Richard E. and Ludders, John W. and Erb, Hollis N. and Simpson, Kenneth W. and Gleed, Robin D.}, year={2004}, month={Aug}, pages={540–544} }
 @article{chevalier_posner_ludders_erb_gleed_2003, title={Assessment of the HemoCue® for measuring hemoglobin in horse blood}, volume={223}, number={1}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, author={Chevalier, H. and Posner, L.P. and Ludders, J.W. and Erb, H.N. and Gleed, R.D.}, year={2003}, pages={78–83} }
 @article{posner_moon_bliss_gleed_erb_2003, title={Colloid osmotic pressure after hemorrhage and replenishment with Oxyglobin Solution, hetastarch, or whole blood in pregnant sheep}, volume={30}, ISSN={1467-2987}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-2995.2003.00088.x}, DOI={10.1046/j.1467-2995.2003.00088.x}, abstractNote={OBJECTIVE
To compare plasma colloid osmotic pressure (COP) of both maternal and fetal blood, before and after hemorrhage, and replenishment with Oxyglobin Solution (Biopure Corporation, Cambridge, MA, USA), hetastarch or whole blood in pregnant ewes.


STUDY DESIGN
Prospective, randomized study.


ANIMALS
A total of 17 adult Rambouillet ewes at 131 (128-133) [median (minimum, maximum)] days gestation, weighing 56 (46, 63) kg.


METHODS
Ewes and fetuses were chronically instrumented with catheters in a maternal jugular vein, maternal carotid artery and fetal femoral artery. Twenty milliliters per kilograms of blood were removed from each ewe over 1 hour. The ewes were then given 20 mL kg(-1) of either Oxyglobin Solution (n = 5), hetastarch (n = 6), or autologous whole blood (n = 6) IV. Maternal plasma COP was measured before hemorrhage, after hemorrhage, after replenishment, and 1 and 2 hours later. Fetal plasma COP was measured after maternal hemorrhage and 2 hours after maternal volume replenishment.


RESULTS
Median COP of all ewes before hemorrhage was 20 (16, 24) mm Hg and after hemorrhage (p < 0.05), decreased to 16 (11, 19) mm Hg. After volume replenishment, the COP of the Oxyglobin Solution group was 22 (21, 25) mm Hg, the autologous whole blood group was 17 (16, 22) mm Hg and the hetastarch group was 20 (17, 21) mm Hg. The COP of the Oxyglobin Solution group was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the COP of the hetastarch group immediately and 60 minutes after volume replenishment, and greater (p < 0.05) than that of the autologous whole blood group at 60 minutes after volume replenishment. The COP of all the fetuses after maternal hemorrhage was 16 (12, 19) mm Hg and at 120 minutes after maternal volume replenishment was 15 (11, 18) mm Hg. There were no differences in COP between or within any of the fetal groups.


CONCLUSIONS
When used to treat blood loss, Oxyglobin Solution increases plasma COP more than an equal volume of hetastarch in the first hour following administration. Maternal administration of Oxyglobin Solution did not alter fetal COP.


CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Oxyglobin Solution is a more potent colloid than hetastarch. Oxyglobin Solution did not appear to translocate fluid from the fetal to maternal circulation.}, number={1}, journal={Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Posner, Lysa P and Moon, Paula F and Bliss, Stuart P and Gleed, Robin D and Erb, Hollis N}, year={2003}, month={Jan}, pages={30–36} }
 @article{moon_bliss_posner_erb_nathanielsz_2001, title={Fetal Oxygen Content is Restored After Maternal Hemorrhage and Fluid Replacement with Polymerized Bovine Hemoglobin, but Not with Hetastarch, in Pregnant Sheep}, ISSN={0003-2999}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000539-200107000-00029}, DOI={10.1097/00000539-200107000-00029}, abstractNote={We investigated the ability of hemoglobin-based oxygen carrying solutions (HBOCs) to alleviate fetal hypoxemia from maternal hemorrhage. Fifteen pregnant ewes (132-day gestational age) were hemorrhaged 20 mL/kg over 1 h; they were randomized to receive 20 mL/kg IV of HBOC, hetastarch (HTS), or autologous blood (BLD) (n = 5 each) over 30 min and were monitored for 2 h. Hemorrhage significantly (P ≤ 0.05) decreased maternal mean blood pressure (from 98 to 48 mm Hg, median), arterial oxygen content (from 12.2 to 11.1 mL/dL), and fetal arterial oxygen content (from 8.1 to 3.9 mL/dL). Fluid replacement restored maternal blood pressure in all groups, although maternal oxygen content immediately returned to baseline only after BLD or HBOC. Maternal oxygen saturation decreased after HBOC (from 98% to 88%). Fetal oxygen content rapidly returned to baseline with either BLD (7.1 mL/dL) or HBOC (8.0 mL/dL) but was never restored with HTS (4.7 mL/dL), and, 60 min after fluid replacement, it was higher with HBOC (8.3 mL/dL) than with HTS (4.7 mL/dL). Fetal plasma-free hemoglobin did not change after HBOC. In conclusion, maternal fluid replacement with HBOC or BLD effectively restored fetal oxygenation, primarily by restoring maternal oxygen content, whereas HTS did not.}, journal={Anesthesia and Analgesia}, publisher={Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)}, author={Moon, Paula F. and Bliss, Stuart P. and Posner, Lysa P. and Erb, Hollis N. and Nathanielsz, Peter W.}, year={2001}, month={Jul}, pages={142–150} }
 @article{foerster_mcewen_posner_2000, title={An alternative method for induction of anesthesia in rabbits}, volume={2}, journal={Exotic DVM Magazine}, author={Foerster, S.H. and McEwen, M.M. and Posner, L.P.}, year={2000}, pages={5} }