@article{chitwood_lashley_higdon_deperno_moorman_2020, title={Raccoon Vigilance and Activity Patterns When Sympatric with Coyotes}, volume={12}, ISSN={1424-2818}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d12090341}, DOI={10.3390/d12090341}, abstractNote={Nonconsumptive effects of predators potentially have negative fitness consequences on prey species through changes in prey behavior. Coyotes (Canis latrans) recently expanded into the eastern United States, and raccoons (Procyon lotor) are a common mesocarnivore that potentially serve as competitors and food for coyotes. We used camera traps at baited sites to quantify vigilance behavior of feeding raccoons and used binomial logistic regression to analyze the effects of social and environmental factors. Additionally, we created raccoon and coyote activity patterns from the camera trap data by fitting density functions based on circular statistics and calculating the coefficient of overlap (Δ). Overall, raccoons were vigilant 46% of the time while foraging at baited sites. Raccoons were more vigilant during full moon and diurnal hours but less vigilant as group size increased and when other species were present. Raccoons and coyotes demonstrated nocturnal activity patterns, with coyotes more likely to be active during daylight hours. Overall, raccoons did not appear to exhibit high levels of vigilance. Activity pattern results provided further evidence that raccoons do not appear to fear coyotes, as both species were active at the same time and showed a high degree of overlap (Δ = 0.75) with little evidence of temporal segregation in activity. Thus, our study indicates that nonconsumptive effects of coyotes on raccoons are unlikely, which calls into question the ability of coyotes to initiate strong trophic cascades through some mesocarnivores.}, number={9}, journal={Diversity}, publisher={MDPI AG}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Higdon, Summer D. and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2020}, month={Sep}, pages={341} }
 @article{michel_strickland_demarais_belant_kautz_duquette_beyer_chamberlain_miller_shuman_et al._2020, title={Relative reproductive phenology and synchrony affect neonate survival in a nonprecocial ungulate}, volume={34}, ISSN={0269-8463 1365-2435}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13680}, DOI={10.1111/1365-2435.13680}, abstractNote={Abstract


Degree of reproductive synchronization in prey is hypothesized as a predator defense strategy reducing prey risk via predator satiation or predator avoidance. Species with precocial young, especially those exposed to specialist predators, should be highly synchronous to satiate predators (predator satiation hypothesis), while prey with nonprecocial (i.e. altricial) young, especially those exposed to generalist predators, should become relatively asynchronous to avoid predator detection (predator avoidance hypothesis). The white‐tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus in North America is an example of a nonprecocial ungulate that uses the hider strategy early in life; its primary predator (coyote; Canis latrans) is a generalist, making white‐tailed deer a good model species to test the predator avoidance hypothesis.

We used birth dates and known fates of white‐tailed deer neonates (n = 1,032) across nine study sites varying in relative synchrony and predator assemblages to test the predator avoidance hypothesis. We predicted that relative birthing asynchrony of the population would increase relative survival at the population level; therefore, at the individual scale, neonate birth date nearer to mean birthing date in a respective population would not influence individual survival.

Coyotes were responsible for the majority of predation events, and survival of those neonates increased the closer the individual was born to peak birthing season in each respective population. Also, at the population level, reproductive asynchronization negatively affected survival.

Contrary to the predator avoidance hypothesis, our data indicate patterns in neonate survival for white‐tailed deer better support the predator satiation hypothesis at the individual and population level. Additionally, coyotes may present a selective force great enough to shift reproductive synchrony such that predator satiation may become a feasible defense strategy for neonates at local spatial scales.

Our results indicate that synchronizing reproduction may still be the most effective strategy to reduce individual predation risk from generalist predators, particularly when the window of heightened resource availability to the prey is narrow.

A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.}, number={12}, journal={Functional Ecology}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Michel, Eric S. and Strickland, Bronson K. and Demarais, Stephen and Belant, Jerrold L. and Kautz, Todd M. and Duquette, Jared F. and Beyer, Dean E., Jr and Chamberlain, Michael J. and Miller, Karl V. and Shuman, Rebecca M. and et al.}, editor={Crocker, DanielEditor}, year={2020}, month={Sep}, pages={2536–2547} }
 @article{stevenson_lashley_chitwood_garabedian_swingen_deperno_moorman_2019, title={Resource selection by coyotes (Canis latrans) in a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem: effects of anthropogenic fires and landscape features}, volume={97}, ISSN={0008-4301 1480-3283}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2018-0150}, DOI={10.1139/cjz-2018-0150}, abstractNote={ Prescribed fire is used to restore and maintain fire-dependent forest communities. Because fire affects food and cover resources, fire-mediated resource selection has been documented for many wildlife species. The first step in understanding these interactions is to understand resource selection of the predators in a fire-maintained system. We attached GPS radio collars to 27 coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) and examined resource selection relative to fire-maintained vegetation types, years since fire, anthropogenic features that facilitate prescribed burning, and other landscape features likely to affect coyote resource selection. Coyote home ranges were characterized by more open vegetation types and more recently burned forest (i.e., burned 0–1 year prior) than available on the study area. Within their home ranges, coyotes avoided areas close to densely vegetated drainages and paved roads. Coyote selection of more recently burned forest likely was in response to greater prey density or increased ability to detect prey soon after vegetation cover was reduced by fires; similarly, coyotes likely avoided drainages due to decreased hunting efficiency. Coyote resource selection was linked to prescribed fire, suggesting the interaction between fire and coyotes may influence ecosystem function in fire-dependent forests. }, number={2}, journal={Canadian Journal of Zoology}, publisher={Canadian Science Publishing}, author={Stevenson, E.R. and Lashley, M.A. and Chitwood, M.C. and Garabedian, J.E. and Swingen, M.B. and DePerno, C.S. and Moorman, C.E.}, year={2019}, month={Feb}, pages={165–171} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_deperno_moorman_2017, title={Frequent fires eliminate fleshy fruit production}, volume={405}, ISSN={["1872-7042"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foreco.2017.09.034}, abstractNote={Frequent fire-return intervals (<3-yr) have been suggested to optimize the benefits of prescribed fire in many fire-dominated ecosystems. There are several potential ecological benefits to frequent fires, such as suppression of encroaching fire-intolerant plant species, increased reproductive allocations of native herbaceous plant species, and increased plant diversity at the stand level. However, recent literature has reported a decline in frugivorous wildlife species in frequently burned landscapes, raising concern for fire-regime effects on fruit production. Thus, an assessment of the effects fire frequency on fleshy fruit abundance is needed. In a replicated field experiment following 4 or more rotations of a 1-yr, 2-yr, and 3-yr fire-return interval, we measured fruit production each month of the growing season (i.e., May-September) in the critically threatened longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem – an ecosystem where frequent fire intervals commonly are recommended. Compared to the 3-yr fire-return interval, cumulative understory fruit production was 99% less following a 1-yr or 2-yr fire-return interval. In fact, all of the fruit detected in 1-yr and 2-yr treatments were detected in patches of vegetation unburned by the previous fire. Additionally, no fruits were detected on any transect in the midstory and overstory strata. These results suggest that applying fire on <3-yr fire-return intervals across large land areas could have negative effects on soft mast-dependent wildlife species. Moreover, without a mosaic in fire-spread, even a 3-yr fire return interval may eliminate midstory and overstory fleshy fruit production over time. We recommend fire managers incorporate multiple fire-return intervals and firing techniques to capture the ecological benefits of variability in frequency and spatial extents in fire.}, journal={FOREST ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT}, author={Lashley, Marcus A. and Chitwood, M. Colter and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2017}, month={Dec}, pages={9–12} }
 @article{chitwood_lashley_sherrill_sorenson_deperno_moorman_2017, title={Macroarthropod response to time-since-fire in the longleaf pine ecosystem}, volume={391}, ISSN={["1872-7042"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.foreco.2017.02.038}, abstractNote={Fire is an important disturbance worldwide, and literature supports the use of prescribed fire to restore and maintain fire-dependent ecosystems. However, fire could alter the abundance and persistence of some arthropods, in turn influencing vertebrate taxa that depend on those arthropods as a food source. We used replicated prescribed fire treatments to evaluate macroarthropod response to time-since-fire in the fire-maintained longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem. We sampled macroarthropod assemblages using vinyl gutter pitfall traps for 5 consecutive days in each month of the study (May-August 2014) in each replicate burn block. We identified macroarthropods to Order and dried and weighed the samples to determine biomass (g) of all taxa detected. We focused our analyses on 4 macroarthropod taxa important as food for wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo): Araneae, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Orthoptera. We used standard least squares regression to evaluate the effect of time-since-fire on total biomass of the 4 Orders (and we also evaluated those Orders independently). The analysis indicated that time-since-fire had no effect (p = 0.2616) on combined biomass of these 4 taxa. Analyzing the 4 Orders separately, biomass of Araneae (p = 0.0057) and Orthoptera (p = 0.0004) showed significant effects of time-since-fire, while Coleoptera (p = 0.9465) and Hymenoptera (p = 0.1175) did not. Parameter estimates (Araneae = 0.0084; SE = 0.0029; Orthoptera = 0.0137; SE = 0.0036) indicated that greater time-since-fire resulted in greater biomass for those 2 Orders. Overall, time-since-fire did not appear to have substantial effects on macroarthropod biomass. However, responses by Araneae and Orthoptera provided evidence that longer time-since-fire may result in greatest levels of biomass for some taxa. Our results indicate the use of frequent prescribed fire to restore and maintain longleaf forests is unlikely to pose risks to overall macroarthropod biomass, particularly if heterogeneity in fire frequency and spatial extent occurs on the landscape.}, journal={FOREST ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Sherrill, Brandon L. and Sorenson, Clyde and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2017}, month={May}, pages={390–395} }
 @article{chitwood_lashley_kilgo_cherry_conner_vukovich_ray_ruth_warren_deperno_et al._2017, title={Are camera surveys useful for assessing recruitment in white-tailed deer?}, volume={2017}, ISSN={0909-6396 1903-220X}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00178}, DOI={10.2981/wlb.00178}, abstractNote={Camera surveys commonly are used by managers and hunters to estimate white‐tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus density and demographic rates. Though studies have documented biases and inaccuracies in the camera survey methodology, camera traps remain popular due to ease of use, cost‐effectiveness, and ability to survey large areas. Because recruitment is a key parameter in ungulate population dynamics, there is a growing need to test the effectiveness of camera surveys for assessing fawn recruitment. At Savannah River Site, South Carolina, we used six years of camera‐based recruitment estimates (i.e. fawn:doe ratio) to predict concurrently collected annual radiotag‐based survival estimates. The coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.445, indicating some support for the viability of cameras to reflect recruitment. We added two years of data from Fort Bragg Military Installation, North Carolina, which improved R2 to 0.621 without accounting for site‐specific variability. Also, we evaluated the correlation between year‐to‐year changes in recruitment and survival using the Savannah River Site data; R2 was 0.758, suggesting that camera‐based recruitment could be useful as an indicator of the trend in survival. Because so few researchers concurrently estimate survival and camera‐based recruitment, examining this relationship at larger spatial scales while controlling for numerous confounding variables remains difficult. Future research should test the validity of our results from other areas with varying deer and camera densities, as site (e.g. presence of feral pigs Sus scrofa) and demographic (e.g. fawn age at time of camera survey) parameters may have a large influence on detectability. Until such biases are fully quantified, we urge researchers and managers to use caution when advocating the use of camera‐based recruitment estimates.}, number={1}, journal={Wildlife Biology}, publisher={Wildlife Biology}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Kilgo, John C. and Cherry, Michael J. and Conner, L. Mike and Vukovich, Mark and Ray, H. Scott and Ruth, Charles and Warren, Robert J. and DePerno, Christopher S. and et al.}, year={2017}, month={Jan}, pages={wlb.00178} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_street_moorman_deperno_2016, title={Do indirect bite count surveys accurately represent diet selection of white-tailed deer in a forested environment?}, volume={43}, ISSN={["1448-5494"]}, DOI={10.1071/wr15008}, abstractNote={


Context
Diet selection is studied in herbivores using three predominant methods: (1) microhistological surveys (identification of plants cell walls remaining in gut contents or faecal excretions); (2) direct bite counts (of tame animals); and (3) indirect bite counts (identifying herbivory on damaged plant tissues). Microhistological surveys and direct bite counts are accurate and provide the potential advantage of linking diet selection to particular individuals. Also, they allow diet selection to be measured in systems with sympatric herbivores more easily than indirect bite counts. However, they require expertise in cell wall structure identification or access to tame animals, and generally require greater expense than indirect bite counts. Conversely, indirect bite counts have the advantages of relatively low cost and time commitment for gathering data and do not require animal observation, but may not be accurate.

Aims
We tested for similarity between diet-selection estimates calculated by indirect bite counts and microhistological surveys.

Methods
We performed concurrent indirect bite count and faecal microhistological surveys on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at Fort Bragg Military Installation, NC.

Key results
The indirect bite count survey assignment of selection was 48% similar to assignments derived from the microhistological survey, based on Jaccard’s similarity index. Out of 23 plant species determined to be selected by indirect bite counts, 15 of those species were selected according to microhistological surveys. According to the microhistological survey, eight of the selected plants made up 51% of the overall diet, and seven of those eight were selected according to the indirect bite counts.

Conclusions
Our data indicate that indirect bite counts may provide a relatively accurate index of the deer-selected plants most important in the white-tailed deer diet, but may be less appropriate to determine selection of plants that infrequently occur in their diet, plants that are typically consumed in entirety, or plants where herbivory damage is poorly identified.

Implications
Indirect bite counts are a relatively inexpensive and time-efficient tool that may be useful to determine plant species most important to white-tailed deer within a forested landscape, particularly if additional research can improve on associated inaccuracies.

}, number={3}, journal={WILDLIFE RESEARCH}, author={Lashley, Marcus A. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Street, Garrett M. and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, year={2016}, pages={254–260} }
 @article{prince_chitwood_lashley_deperno_moorman_2016, title={Resource selection by southeastern fox squirrels in a fire-maintained forest system}, volume={97}, ISSN={["1545-1542"]}, DOI={10.1093/jmammal/gyv210}, abstractNote={Abstract
               Fire is essential to maintain the open forest structure required by the southeastern fox squirrel ( Sciurus niger niger ). In recent decades, managers of the longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) ecosystem have transitioned from dormant-season to growing-season burns, which more effectively limit midstory hardwood encroachment. Similarly, aggressive hardwood removal programs have been employed to further reduce hardwood midstory. However, fox squirrels are dependent on oaks ( Quercus spp.) for food and cover; thus, it is unclear how growing-season burns and hardwood removal may affect habitat quality for fox squirrels. We used compositional analysis to investigate selection of home ranges within the study area by 48 radiocollared fox squirrels on the Fort Bragg Military Installation, North Carolina. We used resource utilization functions with growing-season fire history and other habitat covariates as explanatory variables to test whether growing-season fires influenced the selection of habitat components within home ranges. Lastly, using a sample of fox squirrel relocations and paired random points, we performed binomial logistic regression to test whether habitat selection by fox squirrels was influenced by the availability of oaks and longleaf pines and select forest stand structural characteristics. When establishing home ranges, fox squirrels selected southern yellow pine over other cover types. Within home ranges, fox squirrel use increased with decreasing distance to a riparian area but was not affected by the application of growing-season fires. At the population level, fox squirrels selected for greater densities of reproductively mature oak stems. Fox squirrels likely benefit from growing-season fires that maintain expansive upland pine stands but are negatively affected by homogeneous fire application and mechanical hardwood removal that reduce the occurrence of reproductively mature oaks across the landscape. Managers should strive to maintain oaks in riparian areas, fire shadows, and naturally occurring patches within pine stands when managing for fox squirrels.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF MAMMALOGY}, author={Prince, Annemarie and Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2016}, month={Apr}, pages={631–638} }
 @article{stevenson_chitwood_lashley_pollock_swingen_moorman_deperno_2016, title={Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Coyotes on a Large Military Installation}, volume={15}, ISSN={["1938-5412"]}, DOI={10.1656/058.015.0307}, abstractNote={Abstract 
 Canis latrans (Coyote) recently expanded into the southeastern United States, creating ecologically novel interactions with other species. However, relatively few studies have examined vital rates of southeastern Coyotes or estimated vital rates where individuals are protected from hunting and trapping. In 2011, we captured and attached GPS radiocollars to 31 Coyotes at Fort Bragg Military Installation, NC, where Coyote harvest was restricted. We used a 12-month period (February 2011–January 2012) and known-fate modeling in Program MARK to estimate annual survival. Model-selection results indicated the time-varying model (S[t]) was the most parsimonious model, and. annual survival was 0.80 (95% CI = 0.60–0.91). We documented 7 mortalities, including 2 from vehicles, 2 from offsite trapping, and 3 from unknown causes. Estimated Coyote survival rates at Fort Bragg were similar to most other estimates from the southeastern US. Anthropogenic causes of mortality were important even though hunting and trapping were restricted locally.}, number={3}, journal={SOUTHEASTERN NATURALIST}, author={Stevenson, Elizabeth R. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Pollock, Kenneth H. and Swingen, Morgan B. and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, year={2016}, month={Sep}, pages={459–466} }
 @article{chitwood_lashley_kilgo_pollock_moorman_deperno_2015, title={Do Biological and Bedsite Characteristics Influence Survival of Neonatal White-Tailed Deer?}, volume={10}, ISSN={1932-6203}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119070}, DOI={10.1371/journal.pone.0119070}, abstractNote={Coyotes recently expanded into the eastern U.S. and potentially have caused localized white-tailed deer population declines. Research has focused on quantifying coyote predation on neonates, but little research has addressed the potential influence of bedsite characteristics on survival. In 2011 and 2012, we radiocollared 65 neonates, monitored them intensively for 16 weeks, and assigned mortality causes. We used Program MARK to estimate survival to 16 weeks and included biological covariates (i.e., sex, sibling status [whether or not it had a sibling], birth weight, and Julian date of birth). Survival to 16 weeks was 0.141 (95% CI = 0.075-0.249) and the top model included only sibling status, which indicated survival was lower for neonates that had a sibling. Predation was the leading cause of mortality (35 of 55; 64%) and coyotes were responsible for the majority of depredations (30 of 35; 86%). Additionally, we relocated neonates for the first 10 days of life and measured distance to firebreak, visual obstruction, and plant diversity at bedsites. Survival of predation to 10 days (0.726; 95% CI = 0.586-0.833) was weakly associated with plant diversity at bedsites but not related to visual obstruction. Our results indicate that neonate survival was low and coyote predation was an important source of mortality, which corroborates several recent studies from the region. Additionally, we detected only weak support for bedsite cover as a covariate to neonate survival, which indicates that mitigating effects of coyote predation on neonates may be more complicated than simply managing for increased hiding cover.}, number={3}, journal={PLOS ONE}, publisher={Public Library of Science (PLoS)}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Kilgo, John C. and Pollock, Kenneth H. and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, editor={Roca, Alfred L.Editor}, year={2015}, month={Mar}, pages={e0119070} }
 @article{deperno_chitwood_kennedy-stoskopf_jenks_2015, title={Fructosamine: An Alternative to Serum Glucose Measurement in White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1943-3700"]}, DOI={10.7589/2014-07-182}, abstractNote={Abstract We determined the relationship between fructosamine and serum glucose in free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) harvested during two seasonally stressful periods for deer in coastal North Carolina, US: July 2008 represented the postparturition and lactation period, and March 2009 represented the late winter and pre–green-up period. Serum glucose and fructosamine concentrations were similar between time periods but were uncorrelated within each season. However, when serum glucose was separated into high and low categories based on the median blood glucose score within each time period, we detected statistically significant differences between July and March for serum glucose. Fructosamine was more stable than serum glucose for evaluating the white-tailed deer physiologic condition.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES}, author={DePerno, Christopher S. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Kennedy-Stoskopf, Suzanne and Jenks, Jonathan A.}, year={2015}, month={Oct}, pages={876–879} }
 @article{chitwood_swingen_lashley_flowers_palamar_apperson_olfenbutte_moorman_depernol_2015, title={PARASITOLOGY AND SEROLOGY OF FREE-RANGING COYOTES (CANIS LATRANS) IN NORTH CAROLINA, USA}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1943-3700"]}, DOI={10.7589/2015-01-002}, abstractNote={Abstract Coyotes (Canis latrans) have expanded recently into the eastern US and can serve as a source of pathogens to domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), livestock, and humans. We examined free-ranging coyotes from central North Carolina, US, for selected parasites and prevalence of antibodies against viral and bacterial agents. We detected ticks on most (81%) coyotes, with Amblyomma americanum detected on 83% of those with ticks. Fifteen (47%) coyotes were positive for heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis), with a greater detection rate in adults (75%) than juveniles (22%). Serology revealed antibodies against canine adenovirus (71%), canine coronavirus (32%), canine distemper virus (17%), canine parvovirus (96%), and Leptospira spp. (7%). We did not detect antibodies against Brucella abortus/suis or Brucella canis. Our results showed that coyotes harbor many common pathogens that present health risks to humans and domestic animals and suggest that continued monitoring of the coyote's role in pathogen transmission is warranted.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Swingen, Morgan B. and Lashley, Marcus A. and Flowers, James R. and Palamar, Maria B. and Apperson, Charles S. and Olfenbutte, Colleen and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePernol, Christopher S.}, year={2015}, month={Jul}, pages={664–669} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_harper_moorman_deperno_2015, title={Poor soils and density-mediated body weight in deer: forage quality or quantity?}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1903-220X"]}, DOI={10.2981/wlb.00073}, abstractNote={Cervid studies have demonstrated body weight and lactation may be limited in areas with poor‐quality soils, with the underlying mechanism often attributed to poor forage quality resulting from poor soil quality. However, if highly nutritious foods are produced but in limited quantities, selective foraging may alleviate nutritional stressors associated with poor soil productivity when adequate quantities of high‐quality forage are obtained. We tested whether poor soil productivity limits forage from being high quality or conversely limits the abundance of high‐quality forages. To do so, we determined whether nutrient concentrations in selected and non‐selected forages on our poor soil study site met the nutritional requirements of lactating white‐tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus assuming adequate amounts of forage are obtained. Also, we compared body weight of yearling males at a high density (13–17 deer km‐2) and low density (3–5 deer km‐2), because previous studies concluded soils on the study site were too poor for morphometrics (e.g. body weight) to be density‐mediated. Deer selected plant species from each of five forage classes that would meet their nutritional requirements (i.e. assuming adequate forage intake) but also selected for different nutrients across forage classes. Phosphorus was limited in most forages, but deer selected forages that met P‐requirements 10 times more than expected. We demonstrated body weight was 7.3% greater when deer density was low than high. Contrary to previous reports from poor productivity soil regions, deer on our study site should be able to meet lactation requirements when the quantity of high‐quality forage is not limiting, and similarly body weight should be density‐mediated. Hence, management strategies that alter the amount of forage per animal (i.e. decreasing animal density and/or increasing forage abundance) are viable options to promote desirable ungulate morphometrics in poor soil regions.}, number={4}, journal={WILDLIFE BIOLOGY}, author={Lashley, Marcus A. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Harper, Craig A. and Moorman, Chris E. and DePerno, Chris S.}, year={2015}, month={Aug}, pages={213–219} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_kays_harper_deperno_moorman_2015, title={Prescribed fire affects female white-tailed deer habitat use during summer lactation}, volume={348}, ISSN={0378-1127}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.03.041}, DOI={10.1016/j.foreco.2015.03.041}, abstractNote={Prescribed fire commonly is used to manage habitat for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Although the effects of fire on forage availability for deer have been studied, how female deer use burned areas is not well known, particularly as it relates to fire season and the years-since-fire. We used GPS tracking data from 16 adult female white-tailed deer to assess the effects of fire season and years-since-fire on habitat use during summer lactation. Females selected unburned drainages and older (>1 yr-since-fire) burned areas, and avoided recently burned areas. Individuals with a greater percentage of their summer core area burned expanded the size of their summer home range but did not change summer core area size. Furthermore, summer core area site fidelity (i.e., % overlap between 2011 and 2012 core areas) decreased as the percentage of the 2011 summer core area burned in 2012 increased. Female deer increased selection of burned areas as years-since-fire increased, likely because there was a temporary loss of cover immediately following fire with plants slowly regenerating the subsequent growing seasons. Likewise, to avoid areas depleted of cover, females shifted their core areas away from recent burns when possible but increased their core area size when burned areas were unavoidable (i.e., a large portion of their home range was burned). Burning large contiguous areas may initially have a negative effect on female deer during lactation because of the depletion of cover.}, journal={Forest Ecology and Management}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Lashley, Marcus A. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Kays, Roland and Harper, Craig A. and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2015}, month={Jul}, pages={220–225} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_harper_deperno_moorman_2015, title={VARIABILITY IN FIRE PRESCRIPTIONS TO PROMOTE WILDLIFE FOODS IN THE LONGLEAF PINE ECOSYSTEM}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1933-9747"]}, DOI={10.4996/fireecology.1103062}, abstractNote={AbstractPrescribed fire is commonly used to restore and maintain the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) ecosystem (LLPE). A key function of the LLPE is the provisioning of food for wildlife. Despite the plethora of literature evaluating the effects of fire season and fire-return interval on plant community dynamics, little attention has been given to the response of wildlife foods to fire season or fire-return interval. We measured the availability of key wildlife foods (fleshy fruit [i.e., seed containing a nutritious pericarp] and understory plant biomass) in upland pine forest following dormant-season (December–February) and growing-season (April–June) fires in a chronosequential design. Also, we quantified the relative contributions of the upland hardwood and bottomland hardwood forest types, which often are intentionally suppressed in the LLPE. In 2011 and 2012, we measured understory leafy biomass, biomass of forages selected by whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimm.), and soft mast production chronosequentially in relation to years-since-fire, fire season, and vegetation type in the LLPE at Fort Bragg Military Installation, North Carolina, USA. Understory leafy biomass increased in upland pine and hardwood forests as years-since-fire increased until two years post fire. Selected forages decreased in upland pine forest and increased in upland hardwood forest as time-since-fire increased. In upland pine forests burned during the growing season, 94% of the fruit was detected two years after fire, 6% one year after fire, and 0% the same year as fire. In June, fruit density was greatest in bottomland hardwood forest; in July, fruit density was greatest in dormant-season burned upland pine forest; in August, fruit density was greatest in upland hardwood forest; and in September, fruit density was greatest in upland hardwood and bottomland hardwood forest. Overall summer fruit density (i.e., the sum of fruit density detected each month) was greatest in upland hardwood forest. Understory leafy biomass and deer-selected forages were stable in bottomland hardwood forest because they were not burned, thereby providing a relatively high and stable availability from year to year. Our data demonstrate the importance of diversity in fire season and frequency, and diversity in vegetation types to promote key wildlife foods in the LLPE.}, number={3}, journal={FIRE ECOLOGY}, author={Lashley, Marcus A. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Harper, Craig A. and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2015}, pages={62–79} }
 @article{chitwood_lashley_kilgo_moorman_deperno_2015, title={White-Tailed Deer Population Dynamics and Adult Female Survival in the Presence of a Novel Predator}, volume={79}, ISSN={["1937-2817"]}, DOI={10.1002/jwmg.835}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTRecent localized declines in white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in the southeastern United States have been linked to increasing predation pressure from coyotes (Canis latrans), a novel predator to the region. Studies have documented coyotes as the leading cause of mortality for neonates, and 1 study documented coyotes as a mortality factor for adult females. However, no study has used field‐based vital rates to conduct sensitivity analyses or model deer population trajectories under potential harvest or predator removal strategies. We used low, medium, and high values of fawn survival, adult female survival, and fecundity data collected from Fort Bragg Military Installation, North Carolina to demonstrate the current declining population trajectory for deer (λ = 0.905; low λ = 0.788, high λ = 1.003). Consistent with other studies of ungulates, we determined adult female survival was the most sensitive and elastic vital rate. Further, for 3 potential management (“what if”) scenarios, we projected the population for 10 years using estimated vital rates. Reducing adult female harvest (λ = 0.935; low λ = 0.875, high λ = 1.002) and coyote removal (λ = 0.995; low λ = 0.898, high λ = 1.081) reduced the current population decline, whereas combining both approaches (λ = 1.024; low λ = 0.898, high λ = 1.141) resulted in population increases. Our data indicate that for low‐density deer populations with heavy predation pressure on neonates, protecting adult females from harvest may not completely offset population declines. Coyote removal might be a necessary strategy because it could possibly increase very low fawn survival, which appears to be the most important vital rate influencing λ in our study. However, managers may have to start with reductions in adult female harvest because coyote removal would have to be continuous and consistently effective, making it an impractical management approach by itself. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT}, author={Chitwood, Michael C. and Lashley, Marcus A. and Kilgo, John C. and Moorman, Christopher E. and Deperno, Christopher S.}, year={2015}, month={Feb}, pages={211–219} }
 @article{chitwood_lashley_moorman_deperno_2014, title={Confirmation of Coyote Predation on Adult Female White-tailed Deer in the Southeastern United States}, volume={13}, ISSN={["1938-5412"]}, DOI={10.1656/058.013.0316}, abstractNote={Abstract The recent expansion of Canis latrans (Coyote) into the eastern United States has generated interest among wildlife managers because of the potential impacts on Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer) populations. Coyotes have been reported as predators of adult and neonate White-tailed Deer in some parts of their range, but recent studies in the Southeast have documented only Coyote predation on neonates. We report 4 confirmed Coyote predation events on adult female White-tailed Deer that were radiocollared, implanted with vaginal implant transmitters, monitored every 4–8 hours, and apparently healthy. Field necropsies confirmed killing-bite wounds to the upper throat and base of the mandible, and feeding behavior on the carcasses was consistent with what has been observed for Coyotes. Further, we used swabs from bite wounds to confirm the presence of predator DNA, and the 3 carcasses that were swabbed tested positive for the presence of Coyote DNA. To our knowledge, our results represent the first scientifically documented Coyote predations on adult female White-tailed Deer in the Southeast.}, number={3}, journal={SOUTHEASTERN NATURALIST}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={N30–N32} }
 @article{chitwood_phillips_whisnant_tyndall_lashley_deperno_2014, title={Serum Leptin as an Indicator of Fat Levels in White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Southeastern USA}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1943-3700"]}, DOI={10.7589/2013-08-223}, abstractNote={Abstract Leptin is a hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake, appetite, and metabolism. In some mammals, leptin has been shown to circulate at levels proportional to body fat, which could make it useful for nonlethal evaluation of body condition. Leptin's usefulness for estimating fat levels (i.e., body condition) of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is unknown. We quantified serum leptin concentrations in a sample of free-ranging, female deer collected in July 2008 and March 2009 from coastal North Carolina, USA. We compared leptin concentrations with kidney fat index, femur marrow fat index, and kidney fat mass. Additionally, we assessed differences in leptin concentrations between the two seasons, lactating and nonlactating females, and gestating and nongestating females. Leptin concentrations were similar between seasons but were lower in lactating and gestating females. We did not detect significant relationships between leptin and the body fat metrics, indicating that leptin may have limited value for estimating fat reserves in white-tailed deer.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Phillips, Shannon P. and Whisnant, Scott and Tyndall, James and Lashley, Marcus A. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, year={2014}, month={Oct}, pages={887–890} }
 @article{chitwood_lashley_moorman_deperno_2014, title={Vocalization Observed in Starving White-tailed Deer Neonates}, volume={13}, ISSN={["1938-5412"]}, DOI={10.1656/058.013.0202}, abstractNote={Abstract 
 We observed loud, frequent vocalizations by 5 Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer) neonates that ultimately died of starvation due to abandonment. We did not observe this behavior by other neonates, regardless of survival or cause of mortality. Thus, we believe that neonate vocalization could serve as a useful field indicator of abandonment. Additionally, estimates of predation rates may be inflated because they are masking high rates of undetected abandonment.}, number={2}, journal={SOUTHEASTERN NATURALIST}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and Lashley, Marcus A. and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, year={2014}, month={Jun}, pages={N6–N8} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_biggerstaff_morina_moorman_deperno_2014, title={White-Tailed Deer Vigilance: The Influence of Social and Environmental Factors}, volume={9}, ISSN={1932-6203}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090652}, DOI={10.1371/journal.pone.0090652}, abstractNote={Vigilance behavior may directly affect fitness of prey animals, and understanding factors influencing vigilance may provide important insight into predator-prey interactions. We used 40,540 pictures taken withcamera traps in August 2011 and 2012to evaluate factors influencing individual vigilance behavior of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) while foraging at baited sites. We used binary logistic regression to determine if individual vigilance was affected by age, sex, and group size. Additionally, we evaluated whether the time of the day,moon phase,and presence of other non-predatorwildlife species impacted individual vigilance. Juveniles were 11% less vigilant at baited sites than adults. Females were 46% more vigilant when fawns were present. Males and females spent more time feeding as group size increased, but with each addition of 1 individual to a group, males increased feeding time by nearly double that of females. Individual vigilance fluctuated with time of day andwith moon phase but generally was least during diurnal and moonlit nocturnal hours, indicating deer have the ability to adjust vigilance behavior to changing predation risk associated with varyinglight intensity.White-tailed deer increased individual vigilance when other non-predator wildlife were present. Our data indicate that differential effects of environmental and social constraints on vigilance behavior between sexes may encourage sexual segregation in white-tailed deer.}, number={3}, journal={PLoS ONE}, publisher={Public Library of Science (PLoS)}, author={Lashley, Marcus A and Chitwood, M. Colter and Biggerstaff, Michael T. and Morina, Daniel L. and Moorman, Christopher E. and DePerno, Christopher S.}, editor={Moreira, NeiEditor}, year={2014}, month={Mar}, pages={e90652} }
 @article{maggi_chitwood_kennedy-stoskopf_deperno_2013, title={Novel hemotropic Mycoplasma species in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)}, volume={36}, ISSN={0147-9571}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2013.08.001}, DOI={10.1016/j.cimid.2013.08.001}, abstractNote={Globally, hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. are emerging or re-emerging zoonotic pathogens that affect livestock, wildlife, companion animals, and humans, potentially causing serious and economically important disease problems. Little is known about hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. prevalence, host-specificity, or route of transmission in most species, including wildlife. DNA amplification by PCR targeting the 16SrRNA and the RNaseP genes was used to establish the presence and prevalence of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in a white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) population in eastern North Carolina. Sixty-five deer (89%) tested positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. where sequence analysis of the 16SsRNA and the RNaseP genes indicated the presence of at least three distinct species. This study represents the first detection of three distinct hemotropic Mycoplasma species in white-tailed deer and the first report of two novel hemotropic Mycoplasma species.}, number={6}, journal={Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Maggi, Ricardo G. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Kennedy-Stoskopf, Suzanne and DePerno, Christopher S.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={607–611} }
 @article{chitwood_deperno_flowers_kennedy-stoskopf_2013, title={Physiological Condition of Female White-tailed Deer in a Nutrient-deficient Habitat Type}, volume={12}, ISSN={["1528-7092"]}, DOI={10.1656/058.012.0206}, abstractNote={Abstract Physiological and morphological indices are useful for determining condition of Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer; hereafter deer) and are important for deer management. However, information about deer condition in nutrient-deficient habitat types is sparse. Pocosins have a low nutritional plane and are characterized by deep, acidic, peat soils with a dense shrub layer that provides little or no hard and soft mast. In July 2008 and March 2009, we collected a total of 60 female deer (30 from each period) from a 31,565-ha pocosin forest managed intensively for Pinus taeda (Loblolly Pine) in coastal North Carolina. We recorded whole weight, eviscerated weight, spleen and adrenal gland weights, and kidney fat index (KFI). Abomasal parasite counts (APC) and femur marrow fat index (MFI) were determined post-collection in the laboratory, and blood samples were analyzed for packed cell volume and standard serum chemistries. Serum chemistries were within expected ranges, with the exception of elevated potassium concentrations. The KFI and MFI were within levels reported in the literature, and APC levels did not indicate heavy parasite loads. Spleen (t58 = 0.69, P = 0.492) and adrenal gland weights (t58 = 1.46, P = 0.151) were similar between periods. Our results provide baseline physiological data for deer in a nutrient-deficient habitat type. Though managers need to consider nutritional plane of particular habitat types, our results indicate that deer can achieve normal body weights and maintain body condition in nutrient-deficient sites.}, number={2}, journal={SOUTHEASTERN NATURALIST}, author={Chitwood, M. Colter and DePerno, Christopher S. and Flowers, James R. and Kennedy-Stoskopf, Suzanne}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={307–316} }
 @article{lashley_chitwood_prince_elfelt_kilburg_deperno_moorman_2014, title={Subtle effects of a managed fire regime: A case study in the longleaf pine ecosystem}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1872-7034"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.11.006}, abstractNote={Land managers often use fire prescriptions to mimic intensity, season, completeness, and return interval of historical fire regimes. However, fire prescriptions based on average historical fire regimes do not consider natural stochastic variability in fire season and frequency. Applying prescribed fire based on averages could alter the relative abundance of important plant species and structure. We evaluated the density and distribution of oak (Quercus spp.) and persimmon (Diospyros virgiana) stems and mast after 22 yr of a historical-based growing-season fire prescription that failed to consider the variability in historical fire regimes. We randomly established 30 25-m transects in each of 5 vegetation types and counted reproductively mature oak and persimmon stems and their fruits. In upland longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) stands, this fire regime killed young hardwood trees, thereby decreasing compositional and structural heterogeneity within the upland pine vegetation type and limiting occurrence of the upland hardwood vegetation type. Acorns and persimmons were disproportionately distributed near firebreaks within low intensity fire transition zones. Mast was maintained, though in an unnatural distribution, as a result of an elaborate firebreak system. Our data indicate managed fire regimes may fail to mimic spatial distribution, frequency, and intensity of historical disturbances even when the fire prescription is based on empirical reference fire regimes. To maximize structural heterogeneity and conserve key ecosystem functionality, fire prescriptions should include variations in frequency, season, application method, and fire weather conditions rather than focusing on an average historical fire regime.}, journal={ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS}, author={Lashley, Marcus A. and Chitwood, M. Colter and Prince, Annemarie and Elfelt, Morgan B. and Kilburg, Eric L. and DePerno, Christopher S. and Moorman, Christopher E.}, year={2014}, month={Mar}, pages={212–217} }