@article{reynolds_lowman_2013, title={Promoting ecoliteracy through research service-learning and citizen science}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1540-9309"]}, DOI={10.1890/1540-9295-11.10.565}, abstractNote={Four years ago, Jordan and colleagues asked “What should every citizen know about ecology?” (Jordan et al. 2009). Instead of presenting a list of key ecological concepts and principles, however, the authors proposed a framework that describes ecological literacy as people's ability to: (1) understand key concepts and ecological connectivity, (2) think scientifically about ecological issues, and (3) appreciate the links between human action and the environment. They argued that an ecologically literate person will grasp the real-world applications of ecology, link local issues to global concerns, and be aware of their local environment. To achieve this goal, ecologists must assume a leadership role in educating all citizens about the ecological principles that explain our environment (Power and Chapin 2009), so they can make informed political and economic decisions. Those of us who are trained educators must endeavor to engage students in ecology rather than simply teach ecological concepts. But our work cannot be limited only to classrooms. Here, we present two approaches that have the potential to transform ecological education and improve ecological literacy. The first is research service-learning (RSL), a pedagogy in which students and faculty create partnerships with members of the public to address research questions relevant to their community. A second, complementary approach is to use citizen-science programs to engage additional members of the community in authentic scientific research. Although by no means the only approaches available, both techniques serve as vivid examples of how to foster partnerships with educational institutions, school districts, regional governments, civic groups, and nonprofit organizations. These partnerships, in turn, may improve ecological literacy at local and national scales. While our discussion has a US-centric focus, these practices can be applied in other countries as well. In classroom courses, environmental educators must help students understand the connections between human actions and ecological consequences by giving them classroom training to make those connections. Certainly, many upper-division ecology courses do this, but unfortunately many introductory courses – for both science majors and non-majors – may not, particularly if instruction is primarily via lecturing followed by assessments that test for recall or low-level problem solving. Introductory courses provide the best opportunity to promote science literacy because so many students take them; however, if such courses focus primarily on content they may perpetuate the myth that science is merely an extensive collection of facts and is inaccessible to the average person. We should therefore strive to adopt teaching practices that move toward solving scientific problems relevant to students' lives. Service-learning is a form of experiential education in which students engage in “service activities” that address community needs, and then reflect on those service experiences through structured classroom assignments designed to promote learning and development (Jacoby 1996). Examples of service activities include teaching science in local schools (Caprio and Borgesen 2001; Francek 2003; Haines 2003; Gutstein et al. 2006; Kennell 2006; Robertson 2006); creating tools for K–12 teachers (Curran-Everett et al. 1999; Tsang et al. 2001; Russomanno et al. 2006); performing direct service such as maintaining trails and parks, controlling invasive weeds, planting native trees, or improving wildlife habitat (McDonald and Dominguez 2005; Lortz 2006); implementing recycling programs (McDonald and Dominguez 2005); and conducting energy audits (Bixby et al. 2003; Simmons 2006). Service-learning helps students deepen their understanding about the course topics as they move from concrete service experiences to reflective observation (ie writing about their experiences and receiving feedback from peers or faculty), abstract conceptualization (ie case-study analyses and library research connected to service), and active experimentation (ie research on pressing issues students identified during service; Kolb 1981). Expanding this model to include research as service (Reynolds and Ahern-Dodson 2010), RSL has great potential to promote ecological literacy because it teaches students how to use scientific knowledge and ways of thinking in the service of society, and to better appreciate the scientific method's strengths and limitations. Research service-learning teaches students to ask questions relevant to their communities' needs, and to work with faculty and community partners to design and implement research projects that address those needs. Service is linked to the themes of the course (eg emerging diseases, impacts of technology on society, conservation biology) and students learn basic research skills, such as how to conduct literature reviews, identify research questions, take field notes, gather and analyze data, and interpret results. Students also learn to reflect critically on the ethical, intellectual, personal, and civic aspects of their service experiences while producing tangible products (usually reports) for their community partners. One way to provide opportunities for community members to think scientifically about local issues is through citizen-science programs, which enlist the public's help in gathering high-quality scientific data at scales not feasible for scientists and community agencies to tackle on their own (Bonney et al. 2009; Dickinson and Bonney 2012). Citizen science is a particularly appropriate way to promote ecological literacy because it often includes specific and measurable goals for public education (Cohn 2008). Many national citizen-science programs can be adapted for local use. Examples of such programs include monitoring bird populations (Bart 2005; Bhattacharjee 2005; McCaffrey 2005), assessing local water quality (Firth 1998; Au et al. 2000), and collecting biodiversity data (Schwartz 2006). A common citizen-science model that can easily be adapted to local issues is mapping the location of invasive species. In the Florida Everglades, for example, the size and range of non-native Burmese python populations are expanding, and they are beginning to affect the ecology and economics of an increasingly large area. There is also concern that the presence of pythons will endanger visitors and residents, potentially reducing the appeal of the Everglades as a site for recreational activities. The consequences for regional government are enormous and most likely expensive. This creates an ideal scenario for citizen scientists; local residents could be recruited to record the spatial location of any pythons they observe. Resulting maps could be used not only for education and outreach but also to predict python range expansion and to model potential predator–python interactions. One of the limitations of citizen science is the lack of coordinated networks at local, regional, and national scales. To address this limitation, groups like the National Institute of Invasive Species Science (NIISS, www.niiss.org; a consortium of governmental and nongovernmental organizations) have been formed to coordinate approaches across scales. For instance, NIISS has used eco-informatics to develop monitoring and detection systems and has created a web-based system where users can integrate, browse, upload, download, and analyze data. The Institute seeks to standardize data collection across scales by developing simple monitoring protocols with accompanying quality-control procedures, creating customized data-entry forms, standardizing the use of personal digital assistants (eg iPhones or hand-held GPS devices) for data collection, and providing sufficient educational materials to train citizens on data input (Lowman et al. 2009; Lowman and Randle 2009). Similar protocols could be applied to address ecological issues other than invasive species. Both RSL and citizen-science programs have the potential to promote ecological understanding and an appreciation for the interconnectedness between humans and the environment. However, we cannot expect that participants will become ecologically literate simply by being involved. Programs must also provide opportunities for participants to practice scientific ways of thinking. There must be explicit training in the scientific method – not just in the methods of the particular project – from posing a scientific question to interpreting results. Perhaps most critically, participants must have structured opportunities to reflect on the impact of their efforts. To ensure that programs are achieving literacy goals, we should assess changes in participants' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, ideally through implementing tests before and after the intervention. Although these types of data are not generally collected (Newman et al. 2012), Jordan et al. (2012) offered a framework for evaluating learning outcomes at the individual, programmatic, and community levels. Learning to implement any new pedagogy successfully requires a substantial investment of both time and effort, and there are resources available to support those willing to try. Dedication is also required from those who are not directly involved in RSL courses or citizen-science programs: we can support local teachers, for example, by offering workshops to help them understand the components and dynamics of local ecosystems, develop expertise using scientific methods, gain confidence manipulating large datasets (such as those available through the National Ecological Observatory Network [NEON] at www.neoninc.org), and use technology to engage students in virtual field trips. An example of such a workshop – Of Alligators, Hammocks, and Fire Ants: The Complexities of Florida Ecosystems – focused on using the NEON data streams and education platform to inspire middle-school teachers to teach about local ecosystems (see Appendix A in Lowman et al. 2009). Middle-school teachers were specifically targeted because middle-school represents a critical time when many students establish a love – or disdain – for science (Louv 2008). Furthermore, the level for communicating effective science outreach for any age group, including policy makers, is usually defined as “seventh-grade level”. Empowering middle-school science teachers should therefore be a priority. Citizen science and RSL are two approaches – both of which have emerged as important components of transformational science education platforms (eg NEON [Lowman et al. 2009], climate change at the state level [Lowman 2009]) – that can help achieve this goal. Recognizing the need for stronger links between researchers, educators, students, and citizens will not only improve ecological literacy but also ensure more ecologically based decision making. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.}, number={10}, journal={FRONTIERS IN ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT}, author={Reynolds, Julie A. and Lowman, Margaret D.}, year={2013}, month={Dec}, pages={565–566} }
 @book{lowman_devy_ganesh_2013, title={Treetops at risk: Challenges of global canopy ecology and conservation}, publisher={New York: Springer}, year={2013} }
 @book{lowman_schowalter_franklin_2012, title={Methods in forest canopy research}, publisher={Berkeley: University of California Press}, author={Lowman, M. and Schowalter, T. D. and Franklin, J. F.}, year={2012} }
 @article{caughlin_ganesh_lowman_2012, title={Sacred fig trees promote frugivore visitation and tree seedling abundance in South India}, volume={102}, number={6}, journal={Current Science}, author={Caughlin, T. T. and Ganesh, T. and Lowman, M. D.}, year={2012}, pages={918–922} }
 @misc{lowman_2012, title={Science Statesmanship}, volume={336}, ISSN={["0036-8075"]}, DOI={10.1126/science.336.6078.157}, number={6078}, journal={SCIENCE}, author={Lowman, Margaret Dalzell}, year={2012}, month={Apr}, pages={157–157} }
 @article{lowman_mourad_2010, title={Bridging the divide between virtual and real nature}, volume={8}, ISSN={["1540-9295"]}, DOI={10.1890/1540-9295-8.7.339}, abstractNote={Improving environmental literacy is vital in the 21st century. As global environmental challenges of unprecedented magnitude loom, damages to Earth's living systems are fast approaching irreversible “tipping points” (NSF 2009). Yet, never before have humans had such a wealth of technological tools at their disposal, to help them achieve solutions. These advancements will facilitate collaborations worldwide, allowing us to draw ideas from multiple disciplines, to process and analyze countless data points, and to teach the next generation to view the world in exciting, novel ways that will inspire environmental stewardship. As environmental educators, we must seek to balance cellular and organismal biology, virtual models and real-time data, science and policy. To confront the ecological and societal challenges we face, future environmental scientists will require skills in assessment, prediction, management, and communication (www.visionandchange.org). However, a major stumbling block in training the next generation of environmental practitioners is the difficulty of effectively integrating technology with in situ fieldwork. Indeed, students born after 1980 typically spend more time indoors with electronic devices than outdoors experiencing nature firsthand (Louv 2005). Although most senior ecologists were inspired by their training in the field, younger scientists may be more familiar with virtual worlds, from computer modeling to gaming and social networking, all of which can lead to so-called “nature-deficit disorder”. How can environmental practitioners blend hands-on fieldwork with cutting-edge technology? This conundrum is the subject of ongoing debate. On a more positive note, new programs are emerging that successfully integrate virtual and real environments. The forthcoming National Ecological Observatory Network will conduct continental-scale environmental monitoring, and their large databases will be accessible to students, citizen scientists, and policy makers (www.neoninc.org). Furthermore, at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, the new Nature Research Center – with its mission to “engage the public in understanding the scientific research that affects their daily lives” – will house publicly available state-of-the-art research laboratories, a three-story-tall Daily Planet “immersion” theater that will broadcast field science from remote sites via video-streaming, and dedicated virtual and real meet-the-scientist activities (www.naturesearch.org). These examples illustrate the changing landscape for ecology education, and how technology can advance environmental literacy. What does this mean for a 21st-century classroom? Today, we have the digital resources for an education process unbounded by walls, where large volumes of web-based information are readily available at our fingertips. Hand-held technologies such as smartphones and their associated “apps” are increasingly available as tools to help promote educational activities. The big challenge for ecology education is not a lack of information, but rather the need to provide the relevant context (NRC 2000) that will motivate the next generation of scientists to collect, access, and interpret relevant information for ecological stewardship. A conceptual understanding of “healthy” ecosystems and related ecosystem services, ranging from food and energy to clean air and water, will be required – not only to serve as the foundation for sound economies, but also to sustain and enhance human well-being (MA 2005). Nature shapes, and is shaped by, communities where people reside, and increasing public awareness of sustainability is best achieved by a blend of hands-on and virtual science education experiences. Assignments and projects that encourage students to develop curiosity, to get outside, and to test hypotheses are an essential part of scientific learning. When students actively bond with their natural surroundings, investigate environmental issues that affect their daily lives, and then use virtual simulations to understand large-scale ecological processes and drivers, “STEM” (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education becomes more relevant. Bridging the divide – between the virtual and real environments, scientists and citizens, and ecology and economics – is one of the central issues in the upcoming Ecology and Education Summit entitled “Environmental Literacy for a Sustainable World” (www.esa.org/eesummit). More than 20 national organizations have come together to organize the meeting. Please join in our collective efforts to create and implement an action plan to raise ecological literacy throughout our communities. References cited in text are available online, in WebPanel 1. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.}, number={7}, journal={FRONTIERS IN ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT}, author={Lowman, Meg and Mourad, Teresa}, year={2010}, month={Sep}, pages={339–339} }