@article{salger_cassady_reading_noga_2016, title={A Diverse Family of Host-Defense Peptides (Piscidins) Exhibit Specialized Anti-Bacterial and Anti-Protozoal Activities in Fishes}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1932-6203"]}, DOI={10.1371/journal.pone.0159423}, abstractNote={Conventional antibiotics and other chemical-based drugs are currently one of the most common methods used to control disease-related mortality in animal agriculture. Use of the innate immune system to decrease disease related mortalities is a novel alternative to conventional drugs. One component of the innate immune system is the host-defense peptides, also known as antimicrobial peptides. Host-defense peptides are typically small, amphipathic, α-helical peptides with a broad-spectrum of action against viral, bacterial, fungal, and/or protozoal pathogens. Piscidins are host-defense peptides first discovered in the hybrid striped bass (white bass, Morone chrysops, x striped bass, M. saxatilis). In this paper we identify four new piscidin isoforms in the hybrid striped bass and describe their tissue distributions. We also determine the progenitor species of origin of each piscidin (orthology) and propose a revised nomenclature for this newly described piscidin family based on a three class system. The Class I piscidins (22 amino acids in length; striped bass and white bass piscidin 1 and piscidin 3) show broad-spectrum activity against bacteria and ciliated protozoans, while the Class III piscidins (55 amino acids in length; striped bass and white bass piscidin 6 and striped bass piscidin 7) primarily show anti-protozoal activity. The Class II piscidins (44–46 amino acids in length; striped bass and white bass piscidin 4 and white bass piscidin 5) have a level of activity against bacteria and protozoans intermediate to Classes I and III. Knowledge of piscidin function and activity may help in the future development of disease-resistant lines of striped bass and white bass that could be used to produce superior hybrids for aquaculture.}, number={8}, journal={PLOS ONE}, author={Salger, Scott A. and Cassady, Katherine R. and Reading, Benjamin J. and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2016}, month={Aug} }
 @article{zahran_manning_seo_noga_2016, title={The effect of Ochratoxin A on antimicrobial polypeptide expression and resistance to water mold infection in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)}, volume={57}, journal={Fish & Shellfish Immunology}, author={Zahran, E. and Manning, B. and Seo, J. K. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2016}, pages={60–67} }
 @article{salger_reading_noga_2017, title={Tissue localization of piscidin host-defense peptides during striped bass (Morone saxatilis) development}, volume={61}, ISSN={["1095-9947"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.fsi.2016.12.034}, abstractNote={Infectious diseases are a major cause of larval mortality in finfish aquaculture. Understanding ontogeny of the fish immune system and thus developmental timing of protective immune tissues and cells, may help to decrease serious losses of larval fishes when they are particularly vulnerable to infection. One component of the innate immune system of fishes is the host-defense peptides, which include the piscidins. Piscidins are small, amphipathic, α-helical peptides with a broad-spectrum of action against viral, bacterial, fungal, and protozoan pathogens. We describe for the first time the cellular and tissue localization of three different piscidins (1, 3, and 4) during striped bass (Morone saxatilis) larval ontogeny using immunofluorescent histochemistry. From 16 days post hatch to 12 months of age, piscidin staining was observed in cells of the epithelial tissues of gill, digestive tract, and skin, mainly in mast cells. Staining was also seen in presumptive hematopoietic cells in the head kidney. The three piscidins showed variable cellular and tissue staining patterns, possibly relating to differences in tissue susceptibility or pathogen specificity. This furthers our observation that the piscidins are not a monolithic family of antimicrobials, but that different AMPs have different (more specialized) functions. Furthermore, no immunofluorescent staining of piscidins was observed in post-vitellogenic oocytes, embryos, or larvae from hatch to 14 days post hatch, indicating that this critical component of the innate immune system is inactive in pre-hatch and young larval striped bass.}, journal={FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY}, author={Salger, Scott A. and Reading, Benjamin J. and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2017}, month={Feb}, pages={173–180} }
 @article{dezfuli_giari_lorenzoni_manera_noga_2014, title={Perch liver reaction to Triaenophorus nodulosus plerocercoids with an emphasis on piscidins 3, 4 and proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression}, volume={200}, number={1-2}, journal={Veterinary Parasitology}, author={Dezfuli, B. S. and Giari, L. and Lorenzoni, M. and Manera, M. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2014}, pages={104–110} }
 @article{dezfuli_lui_giari_castaldelli_mulero_noga_2012, title={Infiltration and activation of acidophilic granulocytes in skin lesions of gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata, naturally infected with lymphocystis disease virus}, volume={36}, number={1}, journal={Developmental and Comparative Immunology}, author={Dezfuli, B. S. and Lui, A. and Giari, L. and Castaldelli, G. and Mulero, V. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2012}, pages={174–182} }
 @article{zahran_seo_noga_2012, title={The effect of adjuvant and microbial challenge on the expression of antimicrobial polypeptides in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)}, volume={33}, number={2}, journal={Fish & Shellfish Immunology}, author={Zahran, E. and Seo, J. K. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2012}, pages={168–173} }
 @misc{noga_ullal_corrales_fernandes_2011, title={Application of antimicrobial polypeptide host defenses to aquaculture: Exploitation of downregulation and upregulation responses}, volume={6}, number={1}, journal={Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. D, Genomics & Proteomics}, author={Noga, E. J. and Ullal, A. J. and Corrales, J. and Fernandes, J. M. O.}, year={2011}, pages={44–54} }
 @article{corrales_noga_2011, title={Effects of feeding rate on the expression of antimicrobial polypeptides and on susceptibility to Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in hybrid striped (sunshine) bass (Morone saxatilis male x M. chrysops female)}, volume={318}, number={1-2}, journal={Aquaculture}, author={Corrales, J. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2011}, pages={109–121} }
 @article{go_jo_seo_hong_lee_kim_park_noga_park_2011, title={Isolation and characterization of a novel myoactive tetradecapeptide-related peptide isolated from the brain of the squid, Todarodes pacificus}, volume={32}, number={3}, journal={Peptides (Fayetteville, N.Y.)}, author={Go, H. J. and Jo, E. H. and Seo, J. K. and Hong, Y. K. and Lee, H. H. and Kim, G. D. and Park, T. W. and Noga, E. J. and Park, N. G.}, year={2011}, pages={447–453} }
 @article{dezfuli_giari_lui_lorenzoni_noga_2011, title={Mast cell responses to Ergasilus (Copepoda), a gill ectoparasite of sea bream}, volume={30}, number={4-5}, journal={Fish & Shellfish Immunology}, author={Dezfuli, B. S. and Giari, L. and Lui, A. and Lorenzoni, M. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2011}, pages={1087–1094} }
 @article{seo_stephenson_noga_2011, title={Multiple antibacterial histone H2B proteins are expressed in tissues of American oyster}, volume={158}, number={3}, journal={Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology}, author={Seo, J. K. and Stephenson, J. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2011}, pages={223–229} }
 @article{noga_stone_wood_gordon_robinette_2011, title={Primary structure and cellular localization of callinectin, an antimicrobial peptide from the blue crab}, volume={35}, number={4}, journal={Developmental and Comparative Immunology}, author={Noga, E. J. and Stone, K. L. and Wood, A. and Gordon, W. L. and Robinette, D.}, year={2011}, pages={409–415} }
 @article{park_silphaduang_moon_seo_corrales_noga_2011, title={Structure-activity relationships of piscidin 4, a piscine antimicrobial peptide}, volume={50}, number={16}, journal={Biochemistry}, author={Park, N. G. and Silphaduang, U. and Moon, H. S. and Seo, J. K. and Corrales, J. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2011}, pages={3288–3299} }
 @article{seo_stephenson_crawford_stone_noga_2010, title={American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, expresses a potent antibacterial histone H2B protein}, volume={12}, number={5}, journal={Marine Biotechnology (New York, N.Y.)}, author={Seo, J. K. and Stephenson, J. and Crawford, J. M. and Stone, K. L. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2010}, pages={543–551} }
 @article{ullal_noga_2010, title={Antiparasitic activity of the antimicrobial peptide Hb beta P-1, a member of the beta-haemoglobin peptide family}, volume={33}, number={8}, journal={Journal of Fish Diseases}, author={Ullal, A. J. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2010}, pages={657–664} }
 @article{corrales_mulero_mulero_noga_2010, title={Detection of antimicrobial peptides related to piscidin 4 in important aquacultured fish}, volume={34}, number={3}, journal={Developmental and Comparative Immunology}, author={Corrales, J. and Mulero, I. and Mulero, V. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2010}, pages={331–343} }
 @article{zahran_noga_2010, title={Evidence for synergism of the antimicrobial peptide piscidin 2 with antiparasitic and antioomycete drugs}, volume={33}, number={12}, journal={Journal of Fish Diseases}, author={Zahran, E. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2010}, pages={995–1003} }
 @book{noga_2010, title={Fish disease diagnosis and treatment}, publisher={Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell|}, author={Noga, Edward J.}, year={2010} }
 @article{ottesen_noga_amin_2010, title={Histopathology of culture-associated skin erosions and papillary hyperplasia of Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus (L.)}, volume={33}, number={6}, journal={Journal of Fish Diseases}, author={Ottesen, O. H. and Noga, E. J. and Amin, A.}, year={2010}, pages={489–496} }
 @article{andrews_battaglene_cobcroft_adams_noga_nowak_2010, title={Host response to the chondracanthid copepod Chondracanthus goldsmidi, a gill parasite of the striped trumpeter, Latris lineata (Forster), in Tasmania}, volume={33}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Fish Diseases}, author={Andrews, M. and Battaglene, S. and Cobcroft, J. and Adams, M. and Noga, E. and Nowak, B.}, year={2010}, pages={211–220} }
 @article{noga_borron_hinshaw_gordon_gordon_seo_2011, title={Identification of histones as endogenous antibiotics in fish and quantification in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) skin and gill}, volume={37}, ISSN={["1573-5168"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10695-010-9422-7}, abstractNote={Antimicrobial polypeptides (AMPPs) are increasingly recognized as a critical component of innate host defense. Among the AMPPs, polypeptides related to histones have been identified from many animals. Using peptide mapping, we further confirm the identity of two histone-like proteins from fish as members of the H2B (sunshine bass) and H1 (rainbow trout) histone groups. We optimized the conditions for measuring rainbow trout HLP-1/H2B via sandwich ELISA. We used two antibodies, one to the amino terminus and one to the carboxyl terminus, of trout histone H2B, as the capture antibodies, and we used peroxidase-labeled antibody raised to calf histone H2B as the secondary antibody. Specificity of the detecting antibody was confirmed by specific reactivity with histone H2B in tissue extracts via western blotting. The test was reproducible and capable of detecting as little as 5 ng of histone H2B (0.05 μg/ml). Histone H2B levels expressed in gill tissue of juvenile, healthy rainbow trout were well within concentrations that are lethal to important fish pathogens. However, there was a significant, age (size)-dependent decline in histone H2B concentrations as fish matured, until levels became virtually undetectable in market-size fish. In contrast, levels in skin appeared to remain high and unchanged in small versus large fish. Antibacterial activity in skin and gill tissues was closely correlated with histone H2B concentration measured via ELISA, which supports our previous finding that histones are the major AMPPs in rainbow trout skin and gill.}, number={1}, journal={FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY}, author={Noga, Edward J. and Borron, Paul J. and Hinshaw, Jeffrey and Gordon, William C. and Gordon, Linda J. and Seo, Jung-Kil}, year={2011}, month={Mar}, pages={135–152} }
 @article{dezfuli_pironi_giari_noga_2010, title={Immunocytochemical localization of piscidin in mast cells of infected seabass gill}, volume={28}, number={3}, journal={Fish & Shellfish Immunology}, author={Dezfuli, B. S. and Pironi, F. and Giari, L. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2010}, pages={476–482} }
 @article{salger_reading_baltzegar_sullivan_noga_2011, title={Molecular characterization of two isoforms of piscidin 4 from the hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops x Morone saxatilis)}, volume={30}, ISSN={["1095-9947"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.fsi.2010.10.009}, abstractNote={As one of the key components of innate immune system, piscidins are likely to play pivotal role in the first defense line in fish. Piscidins own multiple resistance activity. A novel piscidin 5-like type 4 was excavated from Larimichthys crocea (termed Lc-P5L4) liver transcriptome immuned by Cryptocaryon irritans, and upregulated at 7 days post infection when secondary bacterial infection occurred. In the study, we characterized the antibacterial activity of Lc-P5L4. The liquid growth inhibition assay detected the recombinant Lc-P5L4 (rLc-P5L) had potent antibacterial activity to Photobacterium damselae. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observed the cell surface of P. damselae collapsed to form pit, and membrane of some bacteria ruptured after co-incubation with rLc-P5L. Further, transmission electron microscope (TEM) was also employed to observe the intracellular microstructural damage, rLc-P5L4 caused cytoplasm contraction, pores formation and contents leakage. After knowing about its antibacterial effects, the preliminary antibacterial mechanism was also explored, western blot analysis showed rLc-P5L4 could bind to P. damselae through targeting to LPS. Agarose gel eletrophoresis analysis further showed rLc-P5L4 could also penetrate into cells and brought about genome DNA degradation. Therefore, rLc-P5L4 was of potential being a candidate to explore new antimicrobial drug or additive agent, especially to P. damselae.}, number={1}, journal={FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY}, author={Salger, Scott A. and Reading, Benjamin J. and Baltzegar, David A. and Sullivan, Craig V. and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2011}, month={Jan}, pages={420–424} }
 @article{bell_eggleston_noga_2010, title={Molecular keys unlock the mysteries of variable survival responses of blue crabs to hypoxia}, volume={163}, number={1}, journal={Oecologia}, author={Bell, G. W. and Eggleston, D. B. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2010}, pages={57–68} }
 @article{corrales_gordon_noga_2009, title={Development of an ELISA for quantification of the antimicrobial peptide piscidin 4 and its application to assess stress in fish}, volume={27}, ISSN={["1095-9947"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.fsi.2009.02.023}, abstractNote={Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) are an integral component of innate immunity. One of the most widespread AMP in fish are the piscidins, which have potent, broad-spectrum activity against viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. The widespread phylogenetic distribution of piscidins suggests that they might play an important host defense role in many fish. Quantifying their expression is important in understanding how and where they function. Using a novel piscidin (piscidin 4) that we recently isolated from commercially cultured hybrid striped bass (white bass, Morone chrysops Rafinesque, ♀ × striped bass, Morone saxatilis Walbaum ♂), we optimized the conditions for measuring this piscidin via sandwich ELISA. We used an antibody to the highly conserved amino terminus of all piscidins as the capture antibody and a peroxidase-labeled antibody specific for the carboxy terminus of piscidin 4 as the detecting antibody. Specificity of the detecting antibody was confirmed by lack of cross-reactivity with other piscidins in ELISA, as well as specificity for piscidin 4 in tissue extracts via Western blotting. The accuracy of the test, defined as piscidin 4 recovery, was 96–103%. Precision, measured by the coefficient of variation, was 13–19%, and parallelism, determined by linearity of the response, had an r2 > 0.99. The ELISA paralleled the results obtained via Western blotting. Piscidin 4 levels expressed in gill tissue of healthy hybrid striped bass were well within concentrations that are lethal to important fish pathogens. Mean gill piscidin 4 in healthy hybrid striped bass was significantly greater than in either nutritionally stressed fish or in diseased (ectoparasite-infested) fish, suggesting that piscidin 4 can be significantly downregulated with stress or disease. These data suggest that the piscidin 4 ELISA might be a useful indicator of disease susceptibility, providing a new, sensitive tool for rapid screening of population health.}, number={2}, journal={FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY}, author={Corrales, J. and Gordon, W. L. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2009}, month={Aug}, pages={154–163} }
 @article{bell_eggleston_noga_2009, title={Environmental and Physiological Controls of Blue Crab Avoidance Behavior During Exposure to Hypoxia}, volume={217}, ISSN={["1939-8697"]}, DOI={10.1086/bblv217n2p161}, abstractNote={Generalizing the impacts of hypoxia on aquatic animal populations is difficult due to differences in behavioral and physiological responses among individuals as well as varying hydrodynamics of hypoxic events. Information on which environmental cues animals use to avoid hypoxia and how abiotic covariates and physiology influence avoidance behavior is lacking. Our laboratory flume studies quantified the interacting effects of hydrography (dissolved oxygen [DO], temperature, and salinity), hydrodynamics (rate of DO decline and current speed), and physiological state on avoidance behaviors of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Changes in DO stimulated increased rates of movement, regardless of whether the change resulted in hypoxia. Increased rates of DO decline stimulated faster movement rates under hypoxic conditions because crabs spent less time in hypoxia compared to crabs under conditions of slow rate of DO decline. Blue crabs that had hemocyanin structures with a high affinity for O2 (hypoxia-tolerant) were less active under hypoxic conditions than conspecifics with hemocyanins with a low O2 affinity, suggesting that physiological state influences behavioral responses to stressors. These results provide a mechanistic understanding of how physiological acclimation and hypoxia hydrodynamics may influence population dynamics.}, number={2}, journal={BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN}, author={Bell, Geoffrey W. and Eggleston, David B. and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2009}, month={Oct}, pages={161–172} }
 @article{corrales_ullal_noga_2009, title={Lateral line depigmentation (LLD) in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque)}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1365-2761"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2761.2009.01069.x}, abstractNote={AbstractHead and lateral line erosion (HLLE) is a chronic dermatopathy affecting a number of fish that presents as depigmented skin along the lateral line system of the trunk and head. We present microbiological, immunological and histopathological features of this lesion in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), that developed after exposure to a chronic nutritional stress. Depigmention was limited to skin that was adjacent to the lateral line. The epidermis of affected fish was thin and reduced to a one‐cell‐thick layer over the lateral line. Melanocytes were depleted at the dermo‐epidermal junction and formed aggregates in the epidermis. Innate immunity was weaker in affected fish than that previously measured in well‐fed channel catfish. Because the pathology and apparent aetiology of HLLE described in various fish species are highly variable, HLLE appears to be a clinical sign, rather than a disease or syndrome. Thus, we propose that this clinical sign be referred to as lateral line depigmentation (LLD), because this description more accurately encompasses all cases of this presentation reported in fish. As nutritional requirements of channel catfish and lateral line neuroanatomy are well‐known, the ability to reproducibly induce LLD in this species could provide a useful model for understanding its pathogenesis.}, number={8}, journal={JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES}, author={Corrales, J. and Ullal, A. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2009}, month={Aug}, pages={705–712} }
 @article{noga_silphaduang_park_seo_stephenson_kozowicz_2009, title={Piscidin 4, a novel member of the piscidin family of antimicrobial peptides}, volume={152}, ISBN={1096-4959}, number={4}, journal={Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology}, author={Noga, E. J. and Silphaduang, U. and Park, N. G. and Seo, J. K. and Stephenson, J. and Kozowicz, S.}, year={2009}, pages={299–305} }
 @article{wada_kurata_hatai_noga_dykstra_burke_2009, title={Reovirus-like Infection of Cultured Summer Flounder Paralichthys dentatus}, volume={44}, ISSN={["0388-788X"]}, DOI={10.3147/jsfp.44.151}, abstractNote={Examination via light and electron microscopy of juvenile summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus experiencing a subacute to chronic mortality revealed severe necrotizing hepatitis characterized by necrotic multinucleated giant cells (syncytia). The cytoplasms of syncytia contained paracrystalline arrays of reovirus-like particles, strongly suggesting that the epidemic was caused by the virus. This is the first report of a putative viral infection in summer flounder.}, number={3}, journal={FISH PATHOLOGY}, author={Wada, Shinpei and Kurata, Osamu and Hatai, Kishio and Noga, Edward J. and Dykstra, Michael J. and Burke, John S.}, year={2009}, month={Sep}, pages={151–153} }
 @article{colorni_ullal_heinisch_noga_2008, title={Activity of the antimicrobial polypeptide piscidin 2 against fish ectoparasites}, volume={31}, ISSN={["1365-2761"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2761.2008.00922.x}, abstractNote={AbstractThe antiparasitic effects of piscidin 2, an antimicrobial polypeptide (AMPP) first isolated from mast cells of hybrid striped bass, were tested against three protistan ectoparasites of marine fish (the ciliates Cryptocaryon irritans and Trichodina sp., and the dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum) and one ciliate ectoparasite of freshwater fish (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis). I. multifiliis was the most susceptible parasite, with all theronts killed at 6.3 μg mL−1 piscidin 2. The most resistant parasite was Trichodina, where a few cells were killed at 12.5 μg mL−1, but several were still alive even at 100 μg mL−1. C. irritans was of intermediate sensitivity, with some theronts killed at 12.5 μg mL−1 and all killed at 25 μg mL−1. High parasite density apparently exhausted the piscidin 2 before it could attain its maximal effect, but surviving parasites were often visibly damaged. The lower efficacy of piscidin 2 against marine parasites compared with the freshwater ciliate might be related to the inhibitory effects of high sea water cation levels. The tissue concentration of piscidins estimated in healthy hybrid striped bass gill (40 μg mL−1) suggests that piscidin 2 is lethal to the parasites tested at physiological concentrations and is thus an important component of innate defence in fish expressing this type of AMPP.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES}, author={Colorni, A. and Ullal, A. and Heinisch, G. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2008}, month={Jun}, pages={423–432} }
 @article{ullal_litaker_noga_2008, title={Antimicrobial peptides derived from hemoglobin are expressed in epithelium of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus, Rafinesque)}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1879-0089"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.dci.2008.04.005}, abstractNote={The beta-chain of the respiratory protein hemoglobin (Hbbeta), has recently been identified in novel sites, including mammalian macrophages and alveolar epithelium, as well as in gill microsomes of fish. However, the functional significance of extra-erythrocytically expressed hemoglobin has been unclear. Here we show inducible expression and upregulation of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) homologous to Hbbeta in the gill epithelium of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) in response to parasitic (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, ich) infection. One peptide (HbbetaP-1), while having activity against some fish bacterial pathogens (e.g., Aeromonas hydrophila), had especially potent antiparasitic activity that was specifically lethal (lytic) to the feeding (trophont) stage of ich and also appeared to accelerate the differentiation of trophonts. However, it had no apparent effect on either the disseminative (theront) or reproductive (tomont) stages, nor was it lytic to channel catfish erythrocytes. Fish experimentally challenged with ich confirmed that the HbbetaP-1 sequence was both transcribed and translated in skin and gill epithelium, the target tissues for ich. The Hb AMP concentration expressed in vivo appeared to be well within the antiparasitic concentrations measured in vitro. Our findings suggest that hemoglobin-derived AMPs might play a significant role in the non-specific immune response.}, number={11}, journal={DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY}, author={Ullal, Anirudh J. and Litaker, R. Wayne and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2008}, pages={1301–1312} }
 @article{mulero_noga_meseguer_garcia-ayala_mulero_2008, title={The antimicrobial peptides piscidins are stored in the granules of professional phagocytic granulocytes of fish and are delivered to the bacteria-containing phagosome upon phagocytosis}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1879-0089"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.dci.2008.05.015}, abstractNote={Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are increasingly recognized as a critical first line of defence against many pathogens. The genes encoding these peptides are expressed in numerous tissue and cell types from a wide variety of different species including mammals, amphibians, fish, and insects. In this study, we report that the AMPs called piscidins were primarily present in the mast cells (MCs) of fish and were only identified in fish belonging to the Order Perciformes. It is striking that histamine was seen to have a similar evolutionary history, since the only piscine MCs endowed with this molecule are in the Perciformes. We also show that both MCs and professional phagocytic granulocytes were armed with different piscidin molecules. In contrast, macrophages were devoid of these AMPs. More importantly, we found by immunoelectron microscopy that piscidins were delivered to the bacteria-containing phagosome of granulocytes upon phagocytosis, suggesting a role for these AMPs in the killing of both extracellular and intracellular pathogenic bacteria.}, number={12}, journal={DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY}, author={Mulero, Ivan and Noga, Edward J. and Meseguer, Jose and Garcia-Ayala, Alfonsa and Mulero, Victoriano}, year={2008}, pages={1531–1538} }
 @article{davis_stephenson_noga_2008, title={The effect of tricaine on use of the fluorescein test for detecting skin and corneal ulcers in fish}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0899-7659"]}, DOI={10.1577/H07-023.1}, abstractNote={AbstractFluorescein has been used for rapid and sensitive detection of fish skin and corneal ulceration. Effective use of the fluorescein test requires knowledge of conditions that might cause misleading interpretations or otherwise interfere with test reliability. Examination of fish health and the clinical workup often require tricaine as one of the most commonly used anesthetics. However, tricaine may interfere with correct interpretation of the fluorescein test and might also cause significant fish injury. The effects of tricaine exposure sequence on the fidelity of the fluorescein test was studied in Pacific halibut Hippoglossus stenolepis, walleye pollock Theragra chalcogramma, and northern rock soles Lepidopsetta polyxystra by examining the fluorescence of experimentally induced epidermal wounding. Tricaine can quench fluorescence that is emitted by fluorescein retained in skin ulcers, causing a false‐negative reaction. Thus, for the fluorescein test to work properly, it is important to avoid the exposure of fluorescein‐treated and rinsed ulcers to tricaine. The effects of exposure to buffered versus unbuffered tricaine on epidermal and corneal integrity were studied in Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus subjected to the fluorescein test and histological examination. Fluorescein could detect not only ulcers but also areas with only a partial loss of epithelium (i.e., erosion). The use of unbuffered tricaine to anesthetize these fish caused serious epidermal and corneal damage. If fish are euthanized with unbuffered tricaine for clinical workup, this severe epidermal or corneal damage could be misinterpreted as an antemortem lesion, leading to misdiagnosis. Even in water with alkalinity exceeding 50 mg/L as CaCO3, it would seem prudent to always buffer tricaine with sodium bicarbonate to prevent a pH change that might lead to iatrogenic effects from unbuffered tricaine. Thus, current general recommendations suggesting that tricaine does not need to be buffered in waters with alkalinity greater than 50 mg/L might need to be modified.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH}, author={Davis, Michael W. and Stephenson, Jeana and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2008}, month={Jun}, pages={86–95} }
 @article{levy_poore_colorni_noga_vandersea_litaker_2007, title={A highly specific PCR assay for detecting the fish ectoparasite Amyloodinium ocellatum}, volume={73}, ISSN={["1616-1580"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao073219}, abstractNote={Amyloodiniosis, caused by the dinoflagellate ectoparasite Amyloodinium ocellatum, is one of the most serious diseases affecting marine fish in warm and temperate waters. Current diagnostic methods rely entirely on the microscopic identification of parasites on the skin or gills of infested fish. However, subclinical infestations usually go undetected, while no method of detecting the free-swimming, infective (dinospore) stage has been devised. Targeting the parasite's ribosomal DNA region, we have developed a sensitive and specific PCR assay that can detect as little as a single cell from any of the 3 stages of the parasite's life cycle (trophont, tomont, dinospore). This assay performs equally well in a simple artificial seawater medium and in natural seawater containing a plankton community assemblage. The assay is also not inhibited by gill tissue. Sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region of 5 A. ocellatum isolates, obtained from fish in the Red Sea (Israel), eastern Mediterranean Sea (Israel), Adriatic Sea (Italy), Gulf of Mexico (Florida), and from an unknown origin, revealed insignificant variation, indicating that all isolates were the same species. However, 3 of these isolates propagated in cell culture varied in behavior and morphology, and these differences were consistent during at least 2 yr in culture. Thus, our findings do not eliminate the possibility that different strains are in fact 'subspecies' or lower taxa, which may also differ in pathogenic and immunogenic characteristics, environmental tolerance, and other features.}, number={3}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={Levy, Michael G. and Poore, Matthew F. and Colorni, Angelo and Noga, Edward J. and Vandersea, Mark W. and Litaker, R. Wayne}, year={2007}, month={Jan}, pages={219–226} }
 @article{ottesen_noga_sandaa_2007, title={Effect of substrate on progression and healing of skin erosions and epidermal papillomas of Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus (L.)}, volume={30}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Fish Diseases}, author={Ottesen, O. H. and Noga, E. J. and Sandaa, W.}, year={2007}, pages={43–53} }
 @article{patterson_noga_germolec_2007, title={Lack of evidence for contact sensitization by Pfiesteria extract}, volume={115}, ISSN={["1552-9924"]}, DOI={10.1289/ehp.9559}, abstractNote={Background Members of the estuarine dinoflagellate genus Pfiesteria are reported to have been responsible for massive fish kills in the southeastern United States. Some reports suggest that exposure to waters having Pfiesteria blooms or occupation-related exposure might result in Pfiesteria-induced dermal irritation and inflammation. Although the toxin has not been isolated and purified, the original data suggested both hydrophilic and hydrophobic toxic components. Some investigators propose that dermonecrotic properties are associated with a hydrophobic fraction. Objectives A bioactive C18-bound putative toxin (CPE) extracted from Pfiesteria-laden aquarium water during active fish-killing conditions was examined in the present study to evaluate its potential to produce inflammation and dermal sensitization and to determine whether the inflammation and dermatitis reported in early human exposure studies were allergic or irritant in nature. Results This fraction was cytotoxic to mouse Neuro-2A cells and primary human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEK) at a concentration of 1 mg/mL. Balb/C mice exposed to 50–200% CPE by skin painting exhibited a 6–10% increase in ear swelling relative to vehicle-treated mice in a primary irritancy assay. There was no increase in lymph node cell proliferation as measured using the local lymph node assay. Exposure to CPE in culture up-regulated interleukin-8 in NHEK, whereas granulocyte macrophage–colony-stimulating factor and tumor necrosis factor α were only minimally altered. Conclusions This study suggests that CPE is cytotoxic to keratinocytes in culture at high concentrations and that it induces mild, localized irritation but not dermal sensitization.}, number={7}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES}, author={Patterson, Rachel M. and Noga, Edward and Germolec, Dori}, year={2007}, month={Jul}, pages={1023–1028} }
 @article{levy_litaker_goldstein_dykstra_vandersea_noga_2007, title={Piscinoodinium, a fish-ectoparasitic dinoflagellate, is a member of the class Dinophyceae, subclass Gymnodiniphycidae: Convergent evolution with Amyloodinium}, volume={93}, ISSN={["1937-2345"]}, DOI={10.1645/GE-3585.1}, abstractNote={All dinoflagellates that infest the skin and gills of fish have traditionally been placed within the class Blastodiniphyceae. Their relatedness was primarily based upon a similar mode of attachment to the host, i.e., attachment disc with holdfasts. Results of recent molecular genetic analyses have transferred these parasites, including Amyloodinium, to the class Dinophyceae, subclass Peridiniphycidae. In our study, a small subunit rDNA gene from a parasitic dinoflagellate that has features diagnostic for species in the genus Piscinoodinium, i.e., typical trophont with attachment disc having rhizocysts, infesting the skin of freshwater tropical fish, places this organism within the dinophycean subclass Gymnodiniphycidae. This suggests a close relationship of Piscinoodinium spp. to dinoflagellates that include symbionts, e.g., species of Symbiodinium, and free-living algae, e.g., Gymnodinium spp. These molecular and morphological data suggest that evolution of this mode of fish ectoparasitism occurred independently in 2 distantly related groups of dinoflagellates, and they further suggest that the taxonomic status of parasites grouped as members of Piscinoodinium requires major revision.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY}, author={Levy, Michael G. and Litaker, R. Wayne and Goldstein, Robert J. and Dykstra, Michael J. and Vandersea, Mark W. and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2007}, month={Oct}, pages={1006–1015} }
 @article{silphaduang_colorni_noga_2006, title={Evidence for widespread distribution of piscidin antimicrobial peptides in teleost fish}, volume={72}, ISSN={["1616-1580"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao072241}, abstractNote={Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are increasingly recognized as a critical component of the host's defense against infection. Several types of AMPs have been recently identified from mucosal tissues or immune cells of a number of teleosts. Among these are the piscidins, which are 22 residue, alpha-helical AMPs that were originally isolated from mast cells of hybrid striped bass Morone saxatilis male x Morone chrysops female. Using an antibody specific for the conserved N-terminal amino acid sequence of piscidin 1, we used immunohistochemistry to probe skin, gill, and gastrointestinal tract of 39 teleosts representing 7 different orders. Nine fish species were piscidin-positive, with all of these species being in the Perciformes, the largest and most evolutionarily advanced order of teleosts. Piscidin-positive cells were identified in species belonging to the families Moronidae, Serranidae, Sciaenidae, Siganidae and Belontidae. Immunopositive cells were usually most consistent with mast cells, although in some species, the granule appearance and tinctorial properties diverged somewhat from those of a typical piscine mast cell. In addition, rodlet cells were piscidin-positive in one member of the family Cichlidae; to our knowledge, it is the first time that a host-associated chemical biomarker has been identified in rodlet cells. Our data suggest that piscidins are present in many evolutionarily advanced teleosts. Piscidin-immunoreactive cells were most common at sites of pathogen entry, including the skin, gill and gastrointestinal tract. These results strongly suggest that piscidins are a widespread and important component of many fishes' defense against disease.}, number={3}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={Silphaduang, U. and Colorni, A. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2006}, month={Oct}, pages={241–252} }
 @article{vandersea_litaker_yonnish_sosa_landsberg_pullinger_moon-butzin_green_morris_kator_et al._2006, title={Molecular assays for detecting Aphanomyces invadans in ulcerative mycotic fish lesions}, volume={72}, ISSN={["0099-2240"]}, DOI={10.1128/AEM.72.2.1551-1557.2006}, abstractNote={ABSTRACTThe pathogenic oomyceteAphanomyces invadansis the primary etiological agent in ulcerative mycosis, an ulcerative skin disease caused by a fungus-like agent of wild and cultured fish. We developed sensitive PCR and fluorescent peptide nucleic acid in situ hybridization (FISH) assays to detectA. invadans. Laboratory-challenged killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) were first tested to optimize and validate the assays. Skin ulcers of Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) from populations found in the Pamlico and Neuse River estuaries in North Carolina were then surveyed. Results from both assays indicated that all of the lesioned menhaden (n= 50) collected in September 2004 were positive forA. invadans. Neither the FISH assay nor the PCR assay cross-reacted with other closely related oomycetes. These results provided strong evidence thatA. invadansis the primary oomycete pathogen in ulcerative mycosis and demonstrated the utility of the assays. The FISH assay is the first molecular assay to provide unambiguous visual confirmation that hyphae in the ulcerated lesions were exclusivelyA. invadans.}, number={2}, journal={APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY}, author={Vandersea, MW and Litaker, RW and Yonnish, B and Sosa, E and Landsberg, JH and Pullinger, C and Moon-Butzin, P and Green, J and Morris, JA and Kator, H and et al.}, year={2006}, month={Feb}, pages={1551–1557} }
 @article{levy_noga_2005, title={Controlling parasitic dinoflagellates of fish, with special emphasis on molecular genetics and immunity}, volume={51}, ISBN={0001-7302}, number={4}, journal={Acta Zootaxonomica Sinica}, author={Levy, M. G. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2005}, pages={550} }
 @article{do huh_thomas_udomkusonsri_noga_2005, title={Epidemic trichodinosis associated with severe epidermal hyperplasia in largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, from North Carolina, USA}, volume={41}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Wildlife Diseases}, author={Do Huh, M. and Thomas, C. D. and Udomkusonsri, P. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2005}, pages={647–653} }
 @article{lewbart_butkus_papich_coleman_krum_noga_2005, title={Evaluation of a method of intracoelomic catheterization in koi}, volume={226}, ISSN={0003-1488}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.2005.226.784}, DOI={10.2460/javma.2005.226.784}, abstractNote={AbstractObjective—To develop an easy and safe method for catheterization and determine the pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin after intracoelomic administration in koi.Design—Prospective study.Animals—20 healthy koi.Procedure—6 koi were anesthetized with tricaine methanesulfonate, and a 23-gauge, three-fourths-inch butterfly catheter was inserted into the coelomic cavity and secured. Catheters were flushed daily for 6 days with 0.4 mL of sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution containing heparin (100 units of heparin in 250 mL of saline solution) without removing koi from the aquarium. At the end of the sixth day (144 hours), each of the 6 catheterized koi and 6 uncatheterized (control) koi was anesthetized individually. Enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg [4.5 mg/lb]) was administered to catheterized koi via the injection port and to control koi via a 23-gauge needle in the same site as the catheter placement. A pharmacokinetics study was performed on multiple plasma samples to validate the efficiency of the catheter. Reliability of the catheterization method was determined in 8 koi.Results—All 6 catheters remained patent and effective for the 6 days prior to the start of the pharmacokinetics study. Results for the 2 routes of administration were comparable, and all koi survived the study without any detectable clinical problems.Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—An intracoelomic catheter was effective and safe when maintained in koi for at least 6 days. This would be highly beneficial for veterinarians, clients, and fish, especially when intracoelomic administration of a drug would require daily or more frequent dosing. (J Am Vet Med Assoc2005;226: 784–788)}, number={5}, journal={Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association}, publisher={American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)}, author={Lewbart, Gregory A. and Butkus, Deborah A. and Papich, Mark G. and Coleman, Angela K. and Krum, Howard N. and Noga, Edward J.}, year={2005}, month={Mar}, pages={784–788} }
 @inproceedings{lewbart_swanson_harms_blasiola_noga_gratzek_lehmann_levine_may_2005, title={Fish Health Management. Continuing Education Course, June 21-23, 2005}, publisher={Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University,  College of Veterinary Medicine}, author={Lewbart, G. and Swanson, C. and Harms, C. and Blasiola, G. and Noga, E. and Gratzek, J. and Lehmann, W. and Levine, J. and May, S.}, year={2005} }
 @article{callahan_litaker_noga_2005, title={Genetic relationships among members of the Ichthyobodo necator complex: implications for the management of aquaculture stocks}, volume={28}, ISSN={["1365-2761"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2761.2004.00603.x}, abstractNote={Abstract Ichthyobodo necator (costia) is a common and important flagellate parasite that infests the skin and gills of many freshwater and marine fish. Costia infestations are often fatal and cause significant aquaculture losses worldwide. Recently it has been demonstrated that Ichthyobodo is a multispecies complex with differing host preferences. Knowing if those species have broad or narrow host specificity has important implications for the management of costia. To address the question of host specificity, genomic DNA was isolated from Ichthyobodo trophonts collected from rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, koi, Cyprinus carpio, mirror carp, C. carpio, goldfish, Carassius auratus, channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, swordtail, Xiphophorus helleri, and Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. The small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene from each isolate was analysed with previously published Ichthyobodo sequences using Bayesian phylogenetic methods. The internal transcribed spacers (ITS) from six isolates were also PCR‐amplified, cloned and sequenced. Both the SSU rRNA phylogenetic analysis and the ITS rRNA sequence data support grouping the 22 Ichthyobodo isolates examined into a complex of nine different species. Many of these species were frequently isolated from multiple hosts, indicating that exchange of infested fish from one region to another has a high potential for spreading the disease. In one instance, the same species was obtained from marine and freshwater fish, further suggesting that certain Ichthyobodo species may not be limited by salinity.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES}, author={Callahan, HA and Litaker, RW and Noga, EJ}, year={2005}, month={Feb}, pages={111–118} }
 @article{seo_crawford_stone_noga_2005, title={Purification of a novel arthropod defensin from the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica}, volume={338}, ISSN={["1090-2104"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.11.013}, abstractNote={An antimicrobial peptide was purified from acidified gill extract of a bivalve mollusk, the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica), by preparative acid-urea–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. The 4265.0 Da peptide had 38 amino acids, including 6 cysteines. It showed strongest activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Staphylococcus aureus; minimum effective concentrations [MECs] 2.4 and 3.0 μg/ml, respectively) but also had significant activity against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli D31 and Vibrio parahemolyticus; MECs 7.6 and 15.0 μg/ml, respectively). Comparison of the amino acid sequence with those of other known antimicrobial peptides revealed that the novel peptide had high sequence homology to arthropod defensins, including those from other bivalves, the mussels Mytilus edulis and Mytilus galloprovincialis. This is the first antimicrobial peptide to be isolated from any oyster species and we have named it American oyster defensin (AOD).}, number={4}, journal={BIOCHEMICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS}, author={Seo, JK and Crawford, JM and Stone, KL and Noga, EJ}, year={2005}, month={Dec}, pages={1998–2004} }
 @article{udomkusonsri_noga_2005, title={The  acute ulceration response (AUR): A potentially widespread and serious cause of skin infection in fish}, volume={246}, DOI={10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.01.003}, abstractNote={In previous studies, we found that rapidly confined hybrid striped bass (Morone saxatilis male×Morone chrysops female) developed a syndrome characterized by the immediate and dramatic loss of their skin. We have named this phenomenon the Acute Ulceration Response (AUR). AUR is characterized by the rapid onset of severe epidermal degeneration, erosion, and ulceration on the body skin and fins, as well as corneal ulceration, in stressed hybrid striped bass. In the present study, we have shown that acute confinement stress can also cause AUR in a taxonomically wide array of fish species, including guppy (Poecilia reticulata), freshwater angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) after a 2-h stress. However, we could not induce AUR in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The AUR lesions were similar to those seen previously in hybrid striped bass. As AUR might be expected to predispose fish to secondary microbial infections, we examined the skin of hybrid striped bass for bacterial infection after experimental induction of AUR. These experiments showed that even fish with severe skin damage could rapidly heal their wounds without obvious consequences within several days. Bacterial numbers in AUR lesions remained low, ∼104 cfu/g of fin tissue, throughout the recovery period. However, if hybrid striped bass with AUR were exposed to even low doses (1 zoospore/ml) of the water mold Saprolegnia, a relatively weak, opportunistic pathogen, the fish developed severe saprolegniosis as soon as 48 h after challenge, with 87.5% infected and 87.5% dead within 4 days post-challenge. In contrast, none of the control fish (no AUR, but exposed to Saprolegnia) developed saprolegniosis. These data provide strong evidence that AUR might play a critical role in skin ulcer epidemics of many fish species that are preceded by an acute stress. Furthermore, our data suggest that environmental pathogen load plays a critical role in determining if AUR lesions will heal spontaneously or instead will lead to devastating disease losses.}, number={38356}, journal={Aquaculture}, author={Udomkusonsri, P. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2005}, pages={63–77} }
 @misc{noga_silphaduang_2004, title={Antimicrobial peptides isolated from fish}, volume={6,753,407}, number={2004 June 22}, publisher={Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office}, author={Noga, E. J. and Silphaduang, U.}, year={2004} }
 @article{chinchar_bryan_silphadaung_noga_wade_rollins-smith_2004, title={Inactivation of viruses infecting ectothermic animals by amphibian and piscine antimicrobial peptides}, volume={323}, ISSN={["0042-6822"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.virol.2004.02.029}, abstractNote={The ability of five purified amphibian antimicrobial peptides (dermaseptin-1, temporin A, magainin I, and II, PGLa), crude peptide fractions isolated from the skin of Rana pipiens and R. catesbeiana, and four antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) from hybrid striped bass (piscidin-1N, -1H, -2, and -3) were examined for their ability to reduce the infectivity of channel catfish virus (CCV) and frog virus 3 (FV3). All compounds, with the exception of magainin I, markedly reduced the infectivity of CCV. In contrast to CCV, FV3 was 2- to 4-fold less sensitive to these agents. Similar to an earlier study employing two other amphibian peptides, the agents used here acted rapidly and over a wide, physiologically relevant, temperature range to reduce virus infectivity. These results extend our previous findings and strongly suggest that various amphibian and piscine AMPs may play important roles in protecting fish and amphibians from pathogenic viruses.}, number={2}, journal={VIROLOGY}, author={Chinchar, VG and Bryan, L and Silphadaung, U and Noga, E and Wade, D and Rollins-Smith, L}, year={2004}, month={Jun}, pages={268–275} }
 @article{udomkusonsri_noga_monteiro-riviere_2004, title={Pathogenesis of acute ulceration response (AUR) in hybrid striped bass}, volume={61}, ISSN={["1616-1580"]}, url={http://gateway.webofknowledge.com/gateway/Gateway.cgi?GWVersion=2&SrcAuth=ORCID&SrcApp=OrcidOrg&DestLinkType=FullRecord&DestApp=WOS_CPL&KeyUT=WOS:000226275200003&KeyUID=WOS:000226275200003}, DOI={10.3354/dao061199}, abstractNote={In a previous study, we discovered that acute confinement stress causes rapid ulceration of the fins of hybrid striped bass Morone saxatilis female x M. chrysops male (Noga et al. 1998. Vet Pathol 35:102-107). In this paper, we report the development of a reproducible model for studying this phenomenon in juvenile hybrid striped bass. We also determined how quickly ulceration could develop in acutely stressed fish and documented the sequential light microscopic and ultrastructural changes associated with this response. When hybrid striped bass were subjected to a standardized confinement protocol, the pathological response was extremely rapid (fin ulceration began to develop within 15 min of confinement). Grossly, the distal edges of the fins became blanched, and melanophores aggregated near the basement membrane and dermis after 15 min of confinement. Microscopically, the earliest detectable change in the fins, which occurred within 15 min of confinement, was swelling and loss of microridges of the outermost epidermal cells; this was followed by epidermal erosion. After 30 min of stress, epidermal ulceration developed at the distal edges of the fins. At this time, both necrotic and apoptotic epidermal cells were present. The middle and basal epidermal layers were severely spongiotic and the dermis and hypodermis were edematous. Over longer periods (up to 2 h), lesions were similar but increasingly more severe, progressing from the distal edge of the fin towards the base. The response to acute stress showed a significant correlation between confinement period and severity of the pathological changes (epidermal degeneration, epidermal ulceration and leukocyte infiltration). Also, we demonstrated that epidermal damage was not restricted to the fins but also affected the body skin and eyes. The ventral area of the body and the corneal epithelium of stressed fish were ulcerated; however, skin on the head and operculum was not affected, suggesting a site-specific mode of damage. In stressed fish, epidermal ulceration was found in 67 to 97% of all fins, 88% of skin on the ventrum, and 67% of corneas, while control fish had only very mild epidermal ulceration in the few fish in which it was present (on 5 to 10% of the fins, but not on the ventral skin or corneas). Due to the widespread damage to epidermal tissues of the body surface, we have named this the acute ulceration response (AUR). Our study indicates that acute confinement can rapidly cause significant damage to epidermal and ocular epithelium. AUR might be a primary cause of morbidity in acutely stressed fish.}, number={3}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={Udomkusonsri, P and Noga, EJ and Monteiro-Riviere, NA}, year={2004}, month={Nov}, pages={199–213} }
 @article{adams_greeley_law_noga_zelikoff_2003, title={Application of multiple sublethal stress indicators to assess the health of fish in Pamlico Sound following extensive flooding}, volume={26}, DOI={10.1007/BF02803638}, number={5}, journal={Estuaries}, author={Adams, S. M. and Greeley, M. S. and Law, J. M. and Noga, E. J. and Zelikoff, J. T.}, year={2003}, pages={1365–1382} }
 @article{noga_silphaduang_2003, title={Piscidins: A novel family of peptide antibiotics from fish}, volume={16}, ISSN={["2013-0139"]}, DOI={10.1358/dnp.2003.16.2.829325}, abstractNote={The global emergence of many new infectious diseases, as well as concerns about the antibiotic resistance of an increasing number of microbial pathogens, necessitates that new approaches be sought in combating these serious infections. Peptide antibiotics, host-produced antimicrobial defenses that have been isolated from all types of organisms, from plants to mammals, possess a number of characteristics that make them attractive drug candidates. An example of the diversity and potential for new discoveries in this area is a novel family of peptide antibiotics named "piscidins," which have been recently isolated from fish. Piscidins have potent, broad-spectrum in vitro activity against many pathogens, including multidrug-resistant bacteria. Interestingly, piscidins reside in mast cells, a highly common tissue granulocyte of uncertain function that is ubiquitous in all vertebrate classes. The discovery of peptide antibiotics in mast cells may be a previously unappreciated, yet crucial, function for this highly common yet enigmatic immune cell.}, number={2}, journal={DRUG NEWS & PERSPECTIVES}, author={Noga, EJ and Silphaduang, U}, year={2003}, month={Mar}, pages={87–92} }
 @article{noga_udomkusonsri_2002, title={Fluorescein: A rapid, sensitive, nonlethal method for detecting skin ulceration in fish}, volume={39}, ISSN={["0300-9858"]}, DOI={10.1354/vp.39-6-726}, abstractNote={ There is a need to develop simple, rapid, and accurate methods for assessing health in fish populations. In this study we demonstrate that use of fluorescein, a nontoxic fluorescent dye, can rapidly and easily detect the presence of skin ulcers in all fish tested, including rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), goldfish (Carassius auratus), and hybrid striped bass (Morone saxatilis male X M. chrysops female). Exposure of fish to as little as 0.10 mg fluorescein per milliliter of water for 3 minutes was sufficient to identify experimentally induced lesions, even pinpoint ulcerations. Such lesions were not visible to the naked eye but were clearly demarcated with fluorescein treatment. Examination of fish that appeared clinically normal often revealed the presence of focal ulcerations, which might have been a consequence of damage during capture, but it also might suggest that skin ulceration may be common even in “clinically normal” fish. Exposure of either nonulcerated or experimentally ulcerated hybrid striped bass to an excessively high concentration of fluorescein had no apparent effect on health or survival. Our studies suggest that fluorescein may be a highly useful tool for rapid health screening in fish populations. }, number={6}, journal={VETERINARY PATHOLOGY}, author={Noga, EJ and Udomkusonsri, P}, year={2002}, month={Nov}, pages={726–731} }
 @article{noga_fan_silphaduang_2002, title={Host site of activity and cytological effects of histone-like proteins on the parasitic dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum}, volume={52}, ISSN={["0177-5103"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao052207}, abstractNote={Histone-like proteins (HLPs) are broad-spectrum, endogenously produced antibiotics which we have isolated from tissues of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and hybrid striped bass (Morone saxatilis male x M. chrysops female). Here, we show that HLP-1, which has high sequence homology to histone H2B, equally inhibited both young and mature trophonts of the important ectoparasite Amyloodinium ocellatum. In addition to direct killing of Amyloodinium trophonts, there was evidence that HLP-1 from both rainbow trout and hybrid striped bass caused severe developmental abnormalities, including delayed development, in both the parasitic trophont stage as well as the reproductive tomont stage. The deleterious effects of HLP-1 also were manifested in what appeared to be 'delayed mortality', where parasites of normal appearance would die later in development. Similar serious damage was also seen with calf histone H2B and the unrelated peptide antibiotic magainin 2. A comparison of the antibiotic activity in mucus versus epidermis compartments of the skin of hybrid striped bass suggested that the majority of antibiotic (including HLP-1) activity resided in the epidermis, although some activity was present in the mucus. These data suggest that normal, nonimmune fish skin contains potent defenses against protozoan ectoparasites and that the effects of these defenses may extend beyond their transient interactions with the parasites, which has important implications for this host-parasite relationship.}, number={3}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={Noga, EJ and Fan, ZQ and Silphaduang, U}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={207–215} }
 @article{litaker_vandersea_kibler_madden_noga_tester_2002, title={Life cycle of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae)}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1529-8817"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.t01-1-01242.x}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY}, author={Litaker, RW and Vandersea, MW and Kibler, SR and Madden, VJ and Noga, EJ and Tester, PA}, year={2002}, month={Jun}, pages={442–463} }
 @article{callahan_litaker_noga_2002, title={Molecular taxonomy of the suborder Bodonina (order Kinetoplastida), including the important fish parasite, Ichthyobodo necator}, volume={49}, DOI={10.1111/j.1550-7408.2002.tb00354.x}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT.   Ichthyobodo necator is an important fish ectoparasite with a broad host and ecological range. A novel method, involving the use of an anesthetic, allowed the collection of large numbers of parasites from the skin and gills of hybrid striped bass (Morone saxatilis male ×M. chrysops female). Genomic DNA from these samples was used to amplify and clone the 18S rRNA gene. The 18S rRNA gene was similarly cloned from Bodo caudatus, Bodo edax, Bodo saltans, an unidentified Bodo species, and Dimastigella trypaniformis. The resulting sequences were aligned with other representative kinetoplastid species using pileup and similarities in secondary structure. Phylogenetic relationships within the suborder Bodonina and representatives of the suborder Trypanosomatina were determined using maximum‐likelihood statistics. The phylogenetic analyses strongly supported the order Kinetoplastida as a monophyletic assemblage consisting of at least two major lineages. One lineage consisted exclusively of 1. necator, indicating that it may represent a new suborder. The second lineage consisted of all other kinetoplastid species. This second lineage appeared to contain at least 8 bodonine sublineages, none of which correlated with currently recognized families. For three sublineages, there was a close correspondence between the 18S phylogeny and the classical taxonomy of Dimastigella, Rhynchobodo, and Rhynchomonas. In contrast, Bodo and Cryptobia were polyphyletic, containing species in two or more sublineages that may represent separate genera.}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology}, author={Callahan, H. A. and Litaker, R. W. and Noga, E. J.}, year={2002}, pages={119–128} }
 @article{litaker_vandersea_kibler_noga_tester_2002, title={Reply to comment on the life cycle and toxicity of Pfiesteria piscicida revisited}, volume={38}, ISSN={["1529-8817"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.02133.x}, abstractNote={Free‐living, marine dinoflagellates are typified by a well‐defined, haplontic life cycle with relatively few stages. The most unusual departure from this life cycle is one reported for the heterotrophic dinoflagellatePfiesteria piscicidaSteidinger et Burkholder. This species is alleged to have at least 24 life cycle stages including amoebae and a chrysophyte‐like cyst form (Burkholder et al. 1992,Burkholder and Glasgow 1997a) not previously known in free‐living marine dinoflagellates.Litaker et al. (2002)redescribed the life cycle ofP. piscicidafrom single‐cell isolates and found only life cycle stages typical of free‐living marine dinoflagellates. The discrepancy between these observations and the life cycle reported in the literature prompted a rigorous study to resolve the life cycle ofP. piscicida.Burkholder and Glasgow (2002)took exception to this study, arguing thatLitaker et al. (2002)misunderstood the life cycle ofP. piscicidaand ignored recent publications. We present a rebuttal of their criticisms and suggest a simple way to resolve the discrepancies in theP. piscicidalife cycle.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY}, author={Litaker, RW and Vandersea, MW and Kibler, SR and Noga, EJ and Tester, PA}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={1268–1272} }
 @article{callahan_noga_2002, title={Tricaine dramatically reduces the ability to diagnose protozoan ectoparasite (Ichthyobodo necator) infections}, volume={25}, ISSN={["0140-7775"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1365-2761.2002.00378.x}, abstractNote={Journal of Fish DiseasesVolume 25, Issue 7 p. 433-437 Tricaine dramatically reduces the ability to diagnose protozoan ectoparasite (Ichthyobodo necator) infections H A Callahan, H A Callahan Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorE J Noga, E J Noga Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this author H A Callahan, H A Callahan Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorE J Noga, E J Noga Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 25 July 2002 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2761.2002.00378.xCitations: 21 E. Noga Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, 4700 Hillsborough Street, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References 1 Allen J.L. & Hunn J.B. (1986) Fate and distribution studies of some drugs used in aquaculture. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 28, 21–24. 2 Brown L.A. (1993) Anesthesia and restraint. In: Fish Medicine (ed. by M. K. Stoskopf), pp. 79–90. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia. 3 Delly J.G. (1985) Narcosis and preservation of freshwater animals. American Laboratory 17, 31–40. 4 Grignard J.C., Melard C. & Kestemont P. (1996) A preliminary study of parasites and diseases in perch in an intensive culture system. Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Ichthyologie 12, 195–199. 5 Hunn J.B. & Allen J.L. (1974) Movement of drugs across the gills of fishes. Annual Review of Pharmacology 14, 47–55. 6 Hunn J.B., Schoettger R.A. & Willford W.A. (1968) Turnover and urinary excretion of free and acetylated MS-222 by rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 25, 25–31. 7 McCarter J., Bartlett B., Dang T. & Schedl T. (1999) On the control of oocyte meiotic maturation and ovulation in Caenorhabditis elegans. Developmental Biology 205, 111–128.DOI: 10.1006/dbio.1998.9109 8 Noga E. J. (1996) Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment, p. 367. Iowa State University Press, Ames. 9 Nogrady T. & Keshmirian J. (1986) Rotifer neuropharmacology – II. Synergistic effect of acetylcholine on local anesthetic activity in Brachionus calyciflorus (Rotifera, Aschelminthes). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 83, 339–344. 10 Post G.W. (1987) Textbook of Fish Health, p. 288. T.F.H Publications, Neptune. 11 Reimschuessel R. (1997) Clinical examination of fish. Michigan Veterinary Conference, 462–464. 12 Robertson D.A. (1985) A review of Icthyobodo necator (Henneguy, 1883), an important and damaging fish parasite. In: Recent Advances in Aquaculture (ed. by J. F. Muir & R. J. Roberts), pp. 1–30. Westview Press, Boulder. 13 Ross L.G. & Ross B. (1999) Anaesthetic and Sedative Techniques for Aquatic Animals, p. 159. Blackwell Sciences Ltd., Malden. 14 Steel R.G.D., Torrie J.H. & Dickey D.A. (1997) Principles and Procedures of Statistics: a Biometrical Approach, 3rd edn, p. 666. McGraw-Hill, New York. 15 Summerfelt R.C. & Smith L.S. (1990) Anesthesia, surgery, and related techniques. In: Methods for Fish Biology (ed. by C. B. Schreck & P. B. Moyle), pp. 213–272. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda. 16 Treves-Brown K.M. (2000) Applied Fish Pharmacology, p. 309. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell. 17 Urawa S., Ueki N., Nakai T. & Yamasaki H. (1991) High mortality of cultured juvenile Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus (Temminck & Schlegel), caused by the parasitic flagellate Ichthyobodo sp. Journal of Fish Diseases 14, 489–494. 18 Urawa S., Ueki N. & Karlsbakk E. (1998) A review of Ichthyobodo infection in marine fishes. Fish Pathology 33, 311–320. Citing Literature Volume25, Issue7July 2002Pages 433-437 ReferencesRelatedInformation}, number={7}, journal={JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES}, author={Callahan, HA and Noga, EJ}, year={2002}, month={Jul}, pages={433–437} }
 @article{silphaduang_noga_2001, title={Antimicrobials - Peptide antibiotics in mast cells of fish}, volume={414}, ISSN={["0028-0836"]}, DOI={10.1038/35104690}, number={6861}, journal={NATURE}, author={Silphaduang, U and Noga, EJ}, year={2001}, month={Nov}, pages={268–269} }
 @article{rubin_mcgeehin_holmes_backer_burreson_earley_griffith_levine_litaker_mei_et al._2001, title={Emerging areas of research reported during the CDC National Conference on Pfiesteria: From biology to public health}, volume={109}, ISSN={["1552-9924"]}, DOI={10.2307/3454909}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES}, author={Rubin, C and McGeehin, MA and Holmes, AK and Backer, L and Burreson, G and Earley, MC and Griffith, D and Levine, R and Litaker, W and Mei, J and et al.}, year={2001}, month={Oct}, pages={633–637} }
 @article{robinette_noga_2001, title={Histone-like protein: a novel method for measuring stress in fish}, volume={44}, ISSN={["1616-1580"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao044097}, abstractNote={We assessed the effect of chronic stress using a group of potent, broad-spectrum antimicrobial polypeptides, called histone-like proteins (HLPs), which appear to be an important component of non-specific immunity in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus skin. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to measure the predominant HLP (HLP-1) in channel catfish skin. Catfish were then exposed to a chronic stress consisting of overcrowding and elevated ammonia. Healthy unstressed fish had consistently high HLP-1 levels, but fish that had been stressed for 1 wk had significantly depressed HLP-1 levels; HLP-1 levels declined further in fish stressed for 3 or 4 wk. The time-dependent decline in HLP-1 levels was not accompanied by any gross signs of disease. In contrast to HLP-1 levels, antibacterial activity in the skin was significantly greater in fish stressed for 1 wk compared with unstressed fish; in addition, antibacterial activity was the same in fish that were unstressed or stressed for 3 or 4 wk. This suggests that other antibiotics besides HLP-1 may be induced in the skin, especially during early stages of stress, that may compensate for depressed HLP-1 levels. Our results indicate that chronic stress has a significant suppressive effect on HLP-1 levels in channel catfish skin. The reduction of HLP-1 in the absence of clinical signs of disease, combined with evidence that its levels are not affected by the acute stressors of capture or sampling, suggests that HLP levels may be a promising indicator for monitoring fish health.}, number={2}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={Robinette, DW and Noga, EJ}, year={2001}, month={Mar}, pages={97–107} }
 @article{noga_fan_silphaduang_2001, title={Histone-like proteins from fish are lethal to the parasitic dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum}, volume={123}, number={2001 July}, journal={Parasitology}, author={Noga, E. J. and Fan, Z. Q. and Silphaduang, U.}, year={2001}, pages={57–65} }
 @article{silphaduang_hatai_wada_noga_2000, title={Cladosporiosis in a tomato clownfish (Amphiprion frenatus)}, volume={31}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine}, author={Silphaduang, U. and Hatai, K. and Wada, S. and Noga, E.}, year={2000}, pages={259–261} }
 @article{kane_dykstra_noga_reimschuessel_baya_driscoll_paerl_landsberg_2000, title={Etiologies, observations and reporting of estuarine finfish lesions}, volume={50}, ISSN={["0141-1136"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0141-1136(00)00117-3}, abstractNote={Lesions in estuarine finfish are associated with a variety of organisms including parasites and bacterial, viral, and fungal infectious agents. In addition, trauma, suboptimal water quality, and other abiotic stress factors may result in the loss of homeostasis. We have observed solitary ulcerative lesions on menhaden sampled from the Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, the Pamlico River, North Carolina, and the St. Johns River, Florida. Histologically, the lesions demonstrated a marked chronic inflammatory infiltrate and granulomas in response to fungal hyphae throughout large areas of exposed necrotic muscle. Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria were also observed in the lesions, a common finding in ulcers of aquatic organisms. Similar observations in menhaden and other species have been described previously in the literature as ulcerative mycosis, mycotic granulomatosis, red spot disease, and epizootic ulcerative syndrome. Despite the many different known causes of fish lesions, the popular press and the scientific literature have recently emphasized Pfiesteria piscicida and other Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates (and their bioactive compounds) as the primary causative agent for finfish lesions, particularly mycotic granulomatous ulcers in Atlantic menhaden. While some laboratory data suggest that Pfiesteria may play a role in field-observed lesions, much more cause-and-effect evidence is needed to determine the importance of other risk factors, both alone or and in combination with Pfiesteria. In order to better understand the etiology of lesion initiation and progression in estuarine finfish, accurate assessments of environmental conditions collected on appropriate temporal and spatial scales, and fish morphological indicators consistent with gross and histological pathologic terminology, should be used for reporting fish lesion observations and kills. Further, this outlook will help to avoid bias and may foster a broader perspective for examining the health of estuarine systems in general.}, number={1-5}, journal={MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH}, author={Kane, AS and Dykstra, MJ and Noga, EJ and Reimschuessel, R and Baya, A and Driscoll, C and Paerl, HW and Landsberg, J}, year={2000}, pages={473–477} }
 @article{jackson_noble_2000, title={First-year cohort dynamics and overwinter mortality of juvenile largemouth bass}, volume={129}, ISSN={["1548-8659"]}, DOI={10.1577/1548-8659(2000)129<0716:FYCDAO>2.3.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Relative year-class size of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides following recruitment through the first winter can depend upon a variety of life history events. Shoreline electrofishing was used to assess juvenile largemouth bass cohort dynamics from school dispersal through the yearling stage in Jordan Lake, North Carolina, 1987–1995. Measures of environmental conditions and dynamics of juvenile shad Dorosoma spp. were collected concurrently to assess their potential effects on cohort dynamics of juvenile largemouth bass. Abundance of age-0 largemouth bass at the time cohort mean lengths reached 50 mm varied significantly among years, as did growth rates and mortality from July through October. No environmental or shad effects on largemouth bass growth or mortality were detected. Overwinter mortality rates did not vary among years, despite a 50-mm difference among years in largemouth bass mean lengths going into late fall, and little evidence was found to indicate significant size-selective ov...}, number={3}, journal={TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY}, author={Jackson, JR and Noble, RL}, year={2000}, month={May}, pages={716–726} }
 @book{noga_2000, title={Fish disease: Diagnosis and treatment}, ISBN={081382558X}, publisher={Ames: Iowa State University}, author={Noga, E. J.}, year={2000} }
 @article{noga_smolowitz_khoo_2000, title={Pathology of shell disease in the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, (Decapoda : Portunidae)}, volume={23}, ISSN={["0140-7775"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1365-2761.2000.00249.x}, abstractNote={Blue crabs affected with shell disease displayed a wide array of pathologies in response to this very common affliction. Grossly, shell disease lesions most commonly presented as variably sized brown to black foci. Such lesions ranged from very small (1 mm2) to locally extensive (up to 200 mm2 in area). The larger of the melanized lesions sometimes appeared ulcerated. The most severe lesions observed (Pamlico River shell disease‐PRSD) resulted in loss of up to 25% of the entire carapace. A diverse bacterial flora consisting of aeromonads, vibrios and five other genera were isolated as the predominant organisms from shell disease lesions. Fungi were rarely observed in larger lesions. Protozoa and algae were also rarely observed on the surface of some lesions. Histologically, lesions ranged from mild erosion of the epicuticle and outermost layers of the calcified endocuticle to more extensive endocuticle erosion with accompanying inflammation. In the most severe cases, there was total loss of the endocuticle and epidermis, with pseudomembrane formation, intense haemocyte infiltration, and involvement of adjacent viscera. There was no apparent relationship between the size of gross lesions and their histological severity (as defined by the extent of tissue damage), suggesting that gross examination of shell disease lesions is not a reliable method for assessing the damage to affected blue crabs.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES}, author={Noga, EJ and Smolowitz, R and Khoo, LH}, year={2000}, month={Nov}, pages={389–399} }
 @article{noga_2000, title={Skin ulcers in fish: Pfiesteria and other etiologies}, volume={28}, DOI={10.1177/019262330002800607}, abstractNote={ Skin ulcers on fish are one of the most well-recognized indicators of polluted or otherwise stressed aquatic environments. In recent years, skin ulcer epidemics have been either experimentally or epidemiologically linked to exposure to a number of xenobiotic chemicals as well as to biotoxins. Some of these agents, such as toxins produced by the dinoflagellate alga Pfiesteria, have led to serious concerns about the health of aquatic ecosystems, such as estuaries along the east coast of the United States. However, a number of other risk factors besides Pfiesteria have been shown to damage epithelium and may also play important roles in skin ulcer pathogenesis. In addition, increasing evidence indicates that not only may skin damage occur via direct contact with toxins, but it may also be induced indirectly from physiological changes that result from exposure not only to toxins but also to other environmental stressors, such as pH and temperature extremes. The multifactorial pathways that operate at both the ecological and the organismal levels as well as the nonspecific response of the skin to insults make it very challenging to link epidemic skin ulcers to any single cause in natural aquatic populations. Consequently, using pathology to unequivocally identify the specific cause of a lesion (eg, Pfiesteria exposure) is not a valid approach. Only with an increased understanding of the basic mechanisms leading to skin damage (including development of specific biomarkers for specific toxins), along with a better understanding of ecological processes operating in these environments, will we be able to discern the relative importance of various risk factors in skin ulcer development. }, number={6}, journal={Toxicologic Pathology}, author={Noga, E. J.}, year={2000}, pages={807–823} }
 @article{khoo_robinette_noga_1999, title={Callinectin, an antibacterial peptide from blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, hemocytes}, volume={1}, number={1}, journal={Marine Biotechnology (New York, N.Y.)}, author={Khoo, L. and Robinette, D. W. and Noga, E. J.}, year={1999}, pages={44–51} }
 @article{noga_wang_grindem_avtalion_1999, title={Comparative clinicopathological responses of striped bass and palmetto bass to acute stress}, volume={128}, ISSN={["0002-8487"]}, DOI={10.1577/1548-8659(1999)128<0680:CCROSB>2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Selected clinicopathological features were compared between resting striped bass Morone saxatilis and palmetto bass (striped bass female × white bass M. chrysops male) and fish subjected to an acute (2-h-long) confinement stress. The taxa differed significantly in resting plasma lysozyme activities and leukocyte responses to mitogen stimulation. Confined fish of both taxa showed similar elevations in plasma osmolality, potassium, anion gap, creatinine, and glucose, suggesting a shock response. However, striped bass displayed slightly more severe perturbations, including elevated albumin and total protein, that indicated hemoconcentration. At least some of the intertaxon differences may have been associated with the greater ability of palmetto bass to adapt to culture conditions.}, number={4}, journal={TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY}, author={Noga, EJ and Wang, CJ and Grindem, CB and Avtalion, R}, year={1999}, month={Jul}, pages={680–686} }
 @article{melamed_timan_avtalion_noga_1999, title={Design of a stress model in the hybrid bass (Morone saxatilis x Morone chrysops)}, volume={51}, number={1}, journal={Israeli Journal of Aquaculture}, author={Melamed, O. and Timan, B. and Avtalion, R. R. and Noga, E. J.}, year={1999}, pages={10–16} }
 @article{litaker_tester_colorni_levy_noga_1999, title={The phylogenetic relationship of Pfiesteria piscicida, Cryptoperidiniopsoid sp Amyloodinoum ocellatum and a Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellate to other dinoflagellates and apicomplexans}, volume={35}, ISSN={["1529-8817"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561379.x}, abstractNote={The taxonomic relationship between heterotrophic and parasitic dinoflagellates has not been studied extensively at the molecular level. In order to investigate these taxonomic relationships, we sequenced the small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA gene of Pfiesteria piscicida (Steidinger et Burkholder), a Pfiesteria‐like dinoflagellate, Cryptoperidiniopsoid sp., and Amyloodinium ocellatum (Brown) and submitted those sequences to GenBank. Pfiesteria piscicida and Cryptoperidiniopsoid sp. are heterotrophic dinoflagellates, purportedly pathogenic to fish, and A. ocellatum, a major fish pathogen, has caused extensive economic losses in both the aquarium and aquaculture industries. The pathogenicity of the Pfiesteria‐like dinoflagellate is unknown at this time, but its growth characteristics and in vitro food preferences are similar to those of P. piscicda. The SSU sequences of these species were aligned with the other full‐length dinoflagellate sequences, as well as those of representative apicomplexans and Perkinsus species, the groups most closely related to dinoflagellates. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that Cryptoperidiniopsoid sp., P. piscicida, and the Pfiesteria‐like dinoflagellate are closely related and group into the class Blastodiniphyceae, as does A. ocellatum. None of the species examined were closely related to the apicomplexans or to Perkinsus marinus, the parasite that causes “Dermo disease” in oysters. The overall phylogenetic analyses largely supported the current class and subclass groupings within the dinoflagellates.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY}, author={Litaker, RW and Tester, PA and Colorni, A and Levy, MG and Noga, EJ}, year={1999}, month={Dec}, pages={1379–1389} }
 @article{noga_smith_smith_1999, title={Turbellarian infection of carangids.}, volume={22}, ISSN={["0140-7775"]}, DOI={10.1046/j.1365-2761.1999.00187.x}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES}, author={Noga, EJ and Smith, J and Smith, SA}, year={1999}, month={Nov}, pages={489–491} }
 @article{cobb_levy_noga_1998, title={Acquired immunity to amyloodiniosis is associated with an antibody response}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1616-1580"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao034125}, abstractNote={The dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum, which causes amyloodiniosis or 'marine velvet disease', is one of the most serious ectoparasitic diseases plaguing warmwater marine fish culture worldwide. We report that tomato clownfish Amphiprion frenatus develop strong immunity to Amyloodinium ocellatum infection following repeated nonlethal challenges and that specific antibodies are associated with this response. Reaction of immune fish antisera against dinospore and trophont-derived antigens in Western blots indicated both shared and stage-specific antibody-antigen reactions. A mannan-binding-protein affinity column was used to isolate IgM-like antibody from A. frenatus serum. The reduced Ig consisted of one 70 kD heavy chain and one 32 kD light chain with an estimated molecular weight of 816 kD for the native molecule. Immunoglobulin (Ig) isolated from immune but not non-immune fish serum significantly inhibited parasite infectivity in vitro. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed using polyclonal rabbit antibody produced against affinity-purified A. frenatus Ig. Anti-Amyloodinium serum antibody was not always detectable in immune fish, although serum antibody titers in immune fish increased after repeated exposure to the parasite. These results suggest that there may be a localized antibody response in skin/gill epithelial tissue, although antibody was rarely detected in skin mucus.}, number={2}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={Cobb, CS and Levy, MG and Noga, EJ}, year={1998}, month={Oct}, pages={125–133} }
 @article{noga_botts_yang_avtalion_1998, title={Acute stress causes skin ulceration in striped bass and hybrid bass (Morone)}, volume={35}, ISSN={["0300-9858"]}, DOI={10.1177/030098589803500203}, abstractNote={Exposure of striped bass ( Morone saxatilis) and hybrid bass ( M. saxatilis female x Morone chrysops male) to an acute (2-hour) confinement stress caused skin ulceration on the fins but not on the body of all confined fish. Striped bass displayed more severe lesions than did hybrid bass. Histologically, lesions had varying degrees of epithelial erosion and ulceration, which was most severe at the distal portion of the fins. Ulceration was associated with dermal and hypodermal edema and necrosis of the remaining stromal tissue and tips of bone in the fin rays. No hemorrhage or thrombosis was present to suggest any obvious vascular derangement. No evidence was found for either trauma or an infectious agent initiating the lesions. Injecting fish with epinephrine caused a similar response, although the degree of ulceration was less severe. These findings may explain why many opportunistic skin pathogens can rapidly develop into serious infections in fish.}, number={2}, journal={VETERINARY PATHOLOGY}, author={Noga, EJ and Botts, S and Yang, MS and Avtalion, R}, year={1998}, month={Mar}, pages={102–107} }
 @article{robinette_wada_arroll_levy_miller_noga_1998, title={Antimicrobial activity in the skin of the channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus: characterization of broad-spectrum histone-like antimicrobial proteins}, volume={54}, ISSN={["1420-9071"]}, DOI={10.1007/s000180050175}, abstractNote={Three antibacterial proteins were isolated from acid extracts of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) skin by cation exchange chromatography and reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography. The molecular masses of the proteins were 15.5, 15.5 and 30 kD as determined by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Mass spectrometry, amino acid composition and amino acid sequence data suggest that the most abundant protein is closely related to histone H2B. The H2B-like protein was inhibitory to Aeromonas hydrophila and Saprolegnia spp., which are important bacterial and fungal pathogens of fish. These findings suggest that histones may be important defensive molecules in fish.}, number={5}, journal={CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR LIFE SCIENCES}, author={Robinette, D and Wada, S and Arroll, T and Levy, MG and Miller, WL and Noga, EJ}, year={1998}, month={May}, pages={467–475} }
 @article{cobb_levy_noga_1998, title={Development of immunity by the tomato clownfish Amphiprion frenatus to the dinoflagellate parasite Amyloodinium ocellatum}, volume={10}, ISSN={["1548-8667"]}, DOI={10.1577/1548-8667(1998)010<0259:DOIBTT>2.0.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract The dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum, which causes amyloodiniosis or “marine velvet disease,” is one of the most serious ectoparasitic diseases affecting warmwater marine fish culture worldwide. We demonstrated that tomato clownfish Amphiprion frenatus can develop strong immunity to infection following repeated nonlethal parasitic challenges. The protective response is long-lived and directed against the trophont stage of the parasite.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH}, author={Cobb, CS and Levy, MG and Noga, EJ}, year={1998}, month={Sep}, pages={259–263} }
 @article{noga_sawyer_rodon-naveira_1998, title={Disease processes and health assessment in blue crab fishery management}, volume={17}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Shellfish Research}, author={Noga, E. J. and Sawyer, T. K. and Rodon-Naveira, M.}, year={1998}, pages={567–577} }
 @book{lewbart_noga_1998, title={Self-assessment color review of ornamental fish}, ISBN={0813826195}, publisher={Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press}, author={Lewbart, G. A. and Noga, E. J.}, year={1998} }
 @article{noga_1998, title={Toxic algae, fish kills and fish disease}, volume={33}, ISSN={["0388-788X"]}, DOI={10.3147/jsfp.33.337}, abstractNote={Toxin-producing algae are becoming an increasingly serious worldwide problem in both aquaculture and fisheries populations. They affect the gamut of aquatic taxa, from marine mammals to finfish to shellfish. The prevalence of toxic algae blooms appears to be dramatically increasing worldwide and in addition, the magnitude (i.e., severity) of the blooms appears to be increasing. New types of toxic algae as well as algae which were never before known to produce toxins are also being reported. While acute mortalities (eg., kills) due to toxic algae have been the focus of attention for some time, there is now evidence that exposure of aquatic animals to toxin-producing algae can lead to serious sublethal effects, including predisposing these populations to various infectious diseases. These findings indicate that the potential impacts of noxious algae blooms may extend well beyond our traditional concepts of risk from toxic algae exposure and may play as yet undefined but crucial roles in the health of both natural and cultured aquatic populations. One specific toxic dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscicida, is used to illustrate this point.}, number={4}, journal={FISH PATHOLOGY}, author={Noga, EJ}, year={1998}, month={Oct}, pages={337–342} }
 @article{wang_noga_avtalion_levy_1998, title={Whole blood assay for examining lymphocyte blastogenesis of percichthyid bass (Morone): Erratum}, volume={62}, number={4}, journal={Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology}, author={Wang, C. J. and Noga, E. J. and Avtalion, R. and Levy, M. G.}, year={1998}, pages={367} }
 @article{noble_herman_noga_bullock_1997, title={Recurrent amoebic gill infestation in rainbow trout cultured in a semiclosed water recirculation system}, volume={9}, ISSN={["1548-8667"]}, DOI={10.1577/1548-8667(1997)009<0064:RAGIIR>2.3.CO;2}, abstractNote={Abstract Five lots of commercially purchased juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (17–44 g) stocked in a continuous-production water recirculation system became infested with gill amoebae. The amoebae were introduced into the recirculation system, as evidenced by their presence on gills of fish held in quarantine tanks. Based on their morphology, as seen in histological sections and by electron microscopy, the amoebae appeared to be more closely related to the family Cochliopodiidae than to other taxa of free-living amoebae. Attempts to culture the amoebae in different media, at different temperatures of incubation, and in fish cell culture were not successful. Initial treatment of the recirculation system with formalin at 167 parts per million (ppm) for 1 h eliminated amoebae from the gills. Subsequent treatments of the entire system with formalin at 50–167 ppm reduced the intensity of further infestations.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH}, author={Noble, AC and Herman, RL and Noga, EJ and Bullock, GL}, year={1997}, month={Mar}, pages={64–69} }
 @article{wang_noga_avtalion_levy_1997, title={Whole blood assay for examining lymphocyte blastogenesis of percichthyid bass (Morone) mrr01}, volume={58}, ISSN={["0165-2427"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0165-2427(97)00049-4}, abstractNote={A simple and reproducible method was developed for the measurement of blastogenesis of peripheral blood lymphocytes using whole blood of hybrid bass (striped bass [Morone saxatilis] female x white bass [M. chrysops] male) stimulated with Concanavalin A, phytohemagglutinin-P, lipopolysaccharide or pokeweed mitogen. Compared to traditional methods which use leucocyte separation procedures, whole blood culture is faster and less expensive. Only small aliquots of blood (10 microliters per culture well) were needed, which would be beneficial for sampling small fish as well as for taking multiple samples from single animals. Optimal culture conditions for hybrid bass, including mitogen concentration, incubation temperature and incubation period, were determined. This is the first report to demonstrate a blastogenic response of whole blood cells in fish.}, number={3-4}, journal={VETERINARY IMMUNOLOGY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY}, author={Wang, CJ and Noga, EJ and Avtalion, R and Levy, MG}, year={1997}, month={Sep}, pages={355–362} }
 @article{noga_khoo_stevens_fan_burkholder_1996, title={Novel toxic dinoflagellate causes epidemic disease in estuarine fish}, volume={32}, ISSN={["1879-3363"]}, DOI={10.1016/0025-326X(95)00114-3}, abstractNote={A newly discovered dinoflagellate is responsible for major fish kills in US Atlantic Coast estuaries. We report that exposure to this dinoflagellate also causes skin ulcers in fish. Skin damage begins as epithelial erosion, which progresses to complete epithelial loss. Fish that recover from acute toxin exposure develop bacterial and/or fungal-infected skin ulcers that are typical of many spontaneous skin ulcer epidemics occurring in estuarine fish species along the Atlantic Coast of the US. Our data provide the first direct cause-and-effect link between a specific environmental stressor and a naturally-occurring, infectious disease in a fishery population.}, number={2}, journal={MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN}, author={Noga, EJ and Khoo, L and Stevens, JB and Fan, Z and Burkholder, JM}, year={1996}, month={Feb}, pages={219–224} }
 @article{noga_arroll_fan_1996, title={Specificity and some physicochemical characteristics of the antibacterial activity from blue crab Callinectes sapidus}, volume={6}, ISSN={["1050-4648"]}, DOI={10.1006/fsim.1996.0039}, abstractNote={Abstract Haemolymph of the brachyuran crustacean Callinectes sapidus possesses bactericidal activity which is highly inhibitory to Gram-negative bacteria cultured from blue crab carapace, including Aeromonas hydrophila , Vibrio parahemolyticus , Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus . Several strains of Escherichia coli were also susceptible, but all other bacteria that were not isolated from blue crabs were resistant. No lysozyme-like activity was detected. A quantitative turbidometric assay using E. coli was used to measure antibacterial activity after exposure to various physical and chemical treatments. The activity was most active at low pH, heat-labile, inhibited by sodium chloride, and inactivated by protease. The antibacterial activity appeared to be confined to the haemocytes.}, number={6}, journal={FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY}, author={Noga, EJ and Arroll, TA and Fan, ZQ}, year={1996}, month={Aug}, pages={403–412} }
 @article{noga_flowers_1995, title={INVASION OF TILAPIA-MOSSAMBICA (CICHLIDAE) VISCERA BY THE MONOGENEAN ENTEROGYRUS-CICHLIDARUM}, volume={81}, ISSN={["0022-3395"]}, DOI={10.2307/3283988}, abstractNote={The monopisthocotylean monogenean Enterogyrus cichlidarum, which normally inhabits the stomach and anterior intestinal lumina of tilapine cichlids, invaded the internal organs of juvenile Mozambique tilapia (Tilapia mossambica). Adult worms infected the intestinal mucosa, peritoneal cavity, liver, heart, blood vessels, swimbladder, and braincase. Most of the parasites were adults and contained eggs. Both adults and eggs incited a mononuclear inflammatory response. Infections were associated with chronic morbidity and mortality. Although affected fishes were overcrowded, the precise stress responsible for such an unusually invasive event is unknown.}, number={5}, journal={JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY}, author={NOGA, EJ and FLOWERS, JR}, year={1995}, month={Oct}, pages={815–817} }
 @article{noga_engel_arroll_mckenna_davidian_1994, title={Low serum antibacterial activity coincides with increased prevalence of shell disease in blue crabs Callinectes sapidus}, volume={19}, ISSN={0177-5103 1616-1580}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao019121}, DOI={10.3354/dao019121}, abstractNote={We provide epidemiological evidence that shell disease, a very common problem of crustaceans in polluted environments, coincides with low serum antibacterial activity. In commercially important blue crabs Callinectes sapidus from the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuary, North Carolina, USA, we identified potent antibacterial activity which was active against most of the bacteria inhabiting the shell of both clinically normal crabs as well as those with shell disease. Clinically normal blue crabs from riverine sites, presumed to be at high risk for developing shell disease, had as little as one-fifth the antibacterial activity of crabs from more oceanic control sites, which had low prevalence of shell disease. Crabs with shell disease had lower serum antibacterial activity than cohorts without shell disease from the same geographic site. This antibacterial activity may be an important mechanism protecting crabs against shell disease and may be a useful biomarker of blue crab health.}, number={2}, journal={Diseases of Aquatic Organisms}, publisher={Inter-Research Science Center}, author={Noga, EJ and Engel, DP and Arroll, TW and McKenna, S and Davidian, M}, year={1994}, pages={121–128} }
 @article{noga_kerby_king_aucoin_giesbrecht_1994, title={Quantitative comparison of the stress response of striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and hybrid striped bass (Morone saxatilis x Morone chrysops and Morone saxatilis x Morone americana)}, volume={55}, number={3}, journal={American Journal of Veterinary Research}, author={Noga, E. J. and Kerby, J. H. and King, W. and Aucoin, D. P. and Giesbrecht, F.}, year={1994}, pages={405} }
 @article{noga_smith_burkholder_hobbs_bullis_1993, title={A NEW ICHTHYOTOXIC DINOFLAGELLATE - CAUSE OF ACUTE MORTALITY IN AQUARIUM FISHES}, volume={133}, ISSN={["0042-4900"]}, DOI={10.1136/vr.133.4.96}, number={4}, journal={VETERINARY RECORD}, author={NOGA, EJ and SMITH, SA and BURKHOLDER, JM and HOBBS, C and BULLIS, RA}, year={1993}, month={Jul}, pages={96–97} }
 @article{noga_1993, title={Water mold infections of freshwater fish: Recent advances}, volume={3}, journal={Annual Review of Fish Diseases}, author={Noga, E. J.}, year={1993}, pages={291} }
 @article{burkholder_noga_hobbs_glasgow_1992, title={NEW PHANTOM DINOFLAGELLATE IS THE CAUSATIVE AGENT OF MAJOR ESTUARINE FISH KILLS}, volume={358}, ISSN={["0028-0836"]}, DOI={10.1038/358407a0}, abstractNote={A worldwide increase in toxic phytoplankton blooms over the past 20 years has coincided with increasing reports of fish diseases and deaths of unknown cause. Among estuaries that have been repeatedly associated with unexplained fish kills on the western Atlantic Coast are the Pamlico and Neuse Estuaries of the southeastern United States. Here we describe a new toxic dinoflagellate with 'phantom-like' behaviour that has been identified as the causative agent of a significant portion of the fish kills in these estuaries, and which may also be active in other geographic regions. The alga requires live finfish or their fresh excreta for excystment and release of a potent toxin. Low cell densities cause neurotoxic signs and fish death, followed by rapid algal encystment and dormancy unless live fish are added. This dinoflagellate was abundant in the water during major fish kills in local estuaries, but only while fish were dying; within several hours of death where carcasses were still present, the flagellated vegetative algal population had encysted and settled back to the sediments. Isolates from each event were highly lethal to finfish and shellfish in laboratory bioassays. Given its broad temperature and salinity tolerance, and its stimulation by phosphate enrichment, this toxic phytoplankter may be a widespread but undetected source of fish mortality in nutrient-enriched estuaries.}, number={6385}, journal={NATURE}, author={BURKHOLDER, JM and NOGA, EJ and HOBBS, CH and GLASGOW, HB}, year={1992}, month={Jul}, pages={407–410} }
 @article{noga_wright_levine_dykstra_hawkins_1991, title={DERMATOLOGICAL DISEASES AFFECTING FISHES OF THE TAR-PAMLICO ESTUARY, NORTH-CAROLINA}, volume={10}, ISSN={["0177-5103"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao010087}, abstractNote={Over the last several years, various epidemic dermatological diseases have been observed in fishes of the Tar-Pamlico estuary.The most important is ulcerative mycosis, an infection associated with oomycete fungi that affects Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus.In the present report we describe lesions resembling ulcerative mycosis in other estuarine species such as southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma, hickory shad Alosa medjocrjs, striped bass Morone saxatilis, bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix, Atlantic croaker Micropogon~as undulatus, weakfish Cynoscion regalis, spot Leiostomus xanthurus, silver perch Ba~rdella chrysura, plnf~sh Lagodon rhomboides, and hogchoker Trinectes maculatus.Less prevalent dernlatological diseases were also ~bserved~including lymphocystis, bacterial dermatitis and myositis, Argulus dermatitis, Henneguya myositis, and various idiopathic dermatopathies.Only one tumor, a fibroma, was seen.The occurrence of many of these diseases is of concern to fisheries managers because of their potential impact upon estuarine fish populations.Many environmental problems (noxious algae blooms, increasing turbidity, anoxic/hypoxic events, loss of submerged aquatic vegetation, etc.) plague the Tar-Pamlico estuary.The relationship of the observed diseases to these environmental problems is presently unknown.}, number={2}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={NOGA, EJ and WRIGHT, JF and LEVINE, JF and DYKSTRA, MJ and HAWKINS, JH}, year={1991}, month={Apr}, pages={87–92} }
 @article{noga_bullis_miller_1990, title={EPIDEMIC ORAL ULCERATION IN LARGEMOUTH BASS (MICROPTERUS-SALMOIDES) ASSOCIATED WITH THE LEECH MYZOBDELLA-LUGUBRIS}, volume={26}, ISSN={["1943-3700"]}, DOI={10.7589/0090-3558-26.1.132}, abstractNote={An epidemic of severe ulcerations of the tongue and buccal cavity was documented in subadult and adult largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) from Currituck Sound, North Carolina (USA). Other external clinical signs were not present. Between November 1986 and May 1987, reports from fishermen indicated that as many as 90% of large (>300 mm total length) bass were affected. Older fish were the most commonly involved. The leech, Myzobdella lugubris (=Illinobdella moorei), was consistently present on or near the lesions. Lesions were heavily infected with several different bacteria that were apparently secondary invaders. Stressful (high) salinity or an interruption in the normal migratory cycle of the parasite are suggested as possible causes for this condition in these bass.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES}, author={NOGA, EJ and BULLIS, RA and MILLER, GC}, year={1990}, month={Jan}, pages={132–134} }
 @article{noga_berkhoff_1990, title={PATHOLOGICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF AEROMONAS-SALMONICIDA INFECTION IN THE AMERICAN EEL (ANGUILLA-ROSTRATA)}, volume={25}, ISSN={["0388-788X"]}, DOI={10.3147/jsfp.25.127}, abstractNote={An ulcerative skin disease which is very similar clinically to that reported in Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) has caused morbidity in both wild and cultured populations of American eel (A. rostrata) in North Carolina, USA. Lesions appear to begin as localized, depigmented foci which spread to form large patches of necrotic skin up to 16 cm2 in area. The depigmented patches detach at the dermo-epidermal junction, forming large ulcers that expose underlying muscle. The infection commonly affects the head, producing cranial swelling and corneal edema. A mild to severe, primarily mononuclear infiltrate is seen, most prominently in large ulcers. Many lesions had extensive collagen deposition, which contributed to the tissue swelling. Culture of skin lesions in various stages of development revealed the consistent presence of bacterial isolates that were biochemically and immunologically identified as Aeromonas salmonicida. This agent was the predominant organism by colony type in 17 of 20 skin cultures and usually appeared to constitute over 90% of the colonies present. Kidney samples were free of infection.}, number={3}, journal={FISH PATHOLOGY}, author={NOGA, EJ and BERKHOFF, HA}, year={1990}, month={Sep}, pages={127–132} }
 @article{levine_hawkins_dykstra_noga_moye_cone_1990, title={SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF ULCERATIVE LESIONS ON FINFISH IN THE TAR-PAMLICO RIVER ESTUARY, NORTH-CAROLINA}, volume={8}, ISSN={["0177-5103"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao008001}, abstractNote={An estuarine survey was conducted between May 1985 and April 1987 to determine the occurrence of ulcerative lesions on finfishes in the Tar-Pamlico River Estuary, North Carolina.Fish were collected by pound net and trawls; with more than 70 000 specimens obtained.Thirty-one species of estuarine fish were collected in the pound nets; Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus represented > 90% of the total catch.Forty-four species were collected in the trawls; spot Leiostomus xanthurus, Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus, and Atlantic menhaden were the most frequently collected species.Menhaden was the predominant species affected with ulcerative lesions in both the pound net and trawl samples.}, number={1}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={LEVINE, JF and HAWKINS, JH and DYKSTRA, MJ and NOGA, EJ and MOYE, DW and CONE, RS}, year={1990}, month={Mar}, pages={1–5} }
 @article{noga_1989, title={CULTURE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE INVITRO-PROPAGATION OF AMYLOODINIUM-OCELLATUM}, volume={6}, ISSN={["0177-5103"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao006137}, abstractNote={Amyloodinium ocellatum, a common dinoflagellate parasite of marine fishes, could be propagated in walking catfish gill (GIB) cell culture using a very simple salt solution consisting of a 1:l mixture of Hank's Balanced Salt Solution and artificial seawater. This culture system did not require the addition of serum or other additives, although significant amounts of trace metals were present as contaminants of the reagent-grade salts used to prepare the salt solution. The salt composition of the medium was important to parasite survival even while the parasites were feeding on the host. The best media for continuous propagation were proportionately higher in K, Mg, Ca, and SO, The relatively simple composition of this culture system may greatly facilitate the study of A, ocellatum because of its strong resemblance to natural environmental condihons.}, number={2}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={NOGA, EJ}, year={1989}, month={May}, pages={137–143} }
 @misc{noga_barthalmus_1989, title={Method of inhibiting the growth of melanin-pigmented cells}, volume={4,859,668}, number={1989 Aug. 22}, publisher={Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office}, author={Noga, E. and Barthalmus, G.}, year={1989} }
 @article{dykstra_levine_noga_hawkins_gerdes_jr_grier_strake_1989, title={Ulcerative mycosis: a serious menhaden disease of the southeastern coastal fisheries of the United States}, volume={12}, ISSN={0140-7775 1365-2761}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2761.1989.tb00289.x}, DOI={10.1111/j.1365-2761.1989.tb00289.x}, abstractNote={Journal of Fish DiseasesVolume 12, Issue 2 p. 175-178 Ulcerative mycosis: a serious menhaden disease of the southeastern coastal fisheries of the United States M. J. DYKSTRA, Corresponding Author M. J. DYKSTRA School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USADr M. J. Dykstra, School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, USA.Search for more papers by this authorJ. F. LEVINE, J. F. LEVINE School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorE. J. NOGA, E. J. NOGA School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorJ. H. HAWKINS, J. H. HAWKINS North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Washington, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorP. GERDES, P. GERDES Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USASearch for more papers by this authorW. J. HARGIS JR, W. J. HARGIS JR Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USASearch for more papers by this authorH. J. GRIER, H. J. GRIER Bureau of Marine Research, St Petersburg, Florida, USASearch for more papers by this authorD. TE STRAKE, D. TE STRAKE Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USASearch for more papers by this author M. J. DYKSTRA, Corresponding Author M. J. DYKSTRA School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USADr M. J. Dykstra, School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, USA.Search for more papers by this authorJ. F. LEVINE, J. F. LEVINE School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorE. J. NOGA, E. J. NOGA School of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorJ. H. HAWKINS, J. H. HAWKINS North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Washington, North Carolina, USASearch for more papers by this authorP. GERDES, P. GERDES Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USASearch for more papers by this authorW. J. HARGIS JR, W. J. HARGIS JR Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USASearch for more papers by this authorH. J. GRIER, H. J. GRIER Bureau of Marine Research, St Petersburg, Florida, USASearch for more papers by this authorD. TE STRAKE, D. TE STRAKE Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: March 1989 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2761.1989.tb00289.xCitations: 39AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume12, Issue2March 1989Pages 175-178 RelatedInformation}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Fish Diseases}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Dykstra, M. J. and Levine, J. F. and Noga, E. J. and Hawkins, J. H. and Gerdes, P. and Jr, W. J. Hargis and Grier, H. J. and Strake, D. Te}, year={1989}, month={Mar}, pages={175–178} }
 @article{noga_levine_townsend_bullis_carlson_corbett_1988, title={Kidney biopsy: A nonlethal method for diagnosing Yersina ruckeri infection (enteric Red Mouth disease) in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)}, volume={49}, journal={American Journal of Veterinary Research}, author={Noga, E. J. and Levine, J. F. and Townsend, K. and Bullis, B. and Carlson, C. and Corbett, W. T.}, year={1988}, pages={363–365} }
 @article{noga_levine_dykstra_hawkins_1988, title={PATHOLOGY OF ULCERATIVE MYCOSIS IN ATLANTIC MENHADEN BREVOORTIA-TYRANNUS}, volume={4}, ISSN={["0177-5103"]}, DOI={10.3354/dao004189}, number={3}, journal={DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS}, author={NOGA, EJ and LEVINE, JF and DYKSTRA, MJ and HAWKINS, JH}, year={1988}, month={Jul}, pages={189–197} }
 @article{dykstra_noga_levine_moye_hawkins_1986, title={CHARACTERIZATION OF THE APHANOMYCES SPECIES INVOLVED WITH ULCERATIVE MYCOSIS (UM) IN MENHADEN}, volume={78}, ISSN={["0027-5514"]}, DOI={10.2307/3807780}, abstractNote={Aphanomyces and Saprolegnia were isolated from characteristic lesions of Ulcerative Mycosis (UM) on Atlantic menhaden and other fish. One of the Aphanomyces isolates was selected for cultural studies which revealed that the fungus was stimulated to increased vegetative growth and improved zoosporulation by low levels of NaCl. The salt tolerance exhibited by this fungus surpassed the known recorded limits for Oomycetes in regard to zoosporogenesis. The relationship of the fungal isolates to the lesions found on fish and the association of prevailing climatological conditions with the disease suggest a complex interaction between the fungus, possibly pre-stressed fish, and the salinity of the estuary systems of North Carolina.}, number={4}, journal={MYCOLOGIA}, author={DYKSTRA, MJ and NOGA, EJ and LEVINE, JF and MOYE, DW and HAWKINS, JH}, year={1986}, pages={664–672} }
 @misc{noga_hartmann_1980, title={Channel catfish virus disease vaccine and method of preparation thereof and method of immunization therewith}, volume={4,219,543}, number={1980 Aug. 26}, publisher={Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office}, author={Noga, Edward J. and Hartmann, J.}, year={1980} }