@article{halawani_dunn_grunden_smith_2020, title={Bacterial exposure leads to variable mortality but not a measurable increase in surface antimicrobials across ant species}, volume={8}, ISSN={["2167-8359"]}, DOI={10.7717/peerj.10412}, abstractNote={Social insects have co-existed with microbial species for millions of years and have evolved a diversity of collective defenses, including the use of antimicrobials. While many studies have revealed strategies that ants use against microbial entomopathogens, and several have shown ant-produced compounds inhibit environmental bacterial growth, few studies have tested whether exposure to environmental bacteria represents a health threat to ants. We compare four ant species’ responses to exposure to Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria in order to broaden our understanding of microbial health-threats to ants and their ability to defend against them. In a first experiment, we measure worker mortality of Solenopsis invicta, Brachymyrmex chinensis, Aphaenogaster rudis, and Dorymyrmex bureni in response to exposure to E. coli and S. epidermidis. We found that exposure to E. coli was lethal for S. invicta and D. bureni, while all other effects of exposure were not different from experimental controls. In a second experiment, we compared the antimicrobial ability of surface extracts from bacteria-exposed and non-exposed S. invicta and B. chinensis worker ants, to see if exposure to E. coli or S. epidermidis led to an increase in antimicrobial compounds. We found no difference in the inhibitory effects from either treatment group in either species. Our results demonstrate the susceptibility to bacteria is varied across ant species. This variation may correlate with an ant species’ use of surface antimicrobials, as we found significant mortality effects in species which also were producing antimicrobials. Further exploration of a wide range of both bacteria and ant species is likely to reveal unique and nuanced antimicrobial strategies and deepen our understanding of how ant societies respond to microbial health threats.}, journal={PEERJ}, author={Halawani, Omar and Dunn, Robert R. and Grunden, Amy M. and Smith, Adrian A.}, year={2020}, month={Dec} }
 @article{penick_halawani_pearson_mathews_lopez-uribe_dunn_smith_2018, title={External immunity in ant societies: sociality and colony size do not predict investment in antimicrobials}, volume={5}, ISSN={["2054-5703"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-85042767466&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1098/rsos.171332}, abstractNote={
            Social insects live in dense groups with a high probability of disease transmission and have therefore faced strong pressures to develop defences against pathogens. For this reason, social insects have been hypothesized to invest in antimicrobial secretions as a mechanism of external immunity to prevent the spread of disease. However, empirical studies linking the evolution of sociality with increased investment in antimicrobials have been relatively few. Here we quantify the strength of antimicrobial secretions among 20 ant species that cover a broad spectrum of ant diversity and colony sizes. We extracted external compounds from ant workers to test whether they inhibited the growth of the bacterium
            Staphylococcus epidermidis
            . Because all ant species are highly social, we predicted that all species would exhibit some antimicrobial activity and that species that form the largest colonies would exhibit the strongest antimicrobial response. Our comparative approach revealed that strong surface antimicrobials are common to particular ant clades, but 40% of species exhibited no antimicrobial activity at all. We also found no correlation between antimicrobial activity and colony size. Rather than relying on antimicrobial secretions as external immunity to control pathogen spread, many ant species have probably developed alternative strategies to defend against disease pressure.
          }, number={2}, journal={ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE}, publisher={The Royal Society}, author={Penick, Clint A. and Halawani, Omar and Pearson, Bria and Mathews, Stephanie and Lopez-Uribe, Margarita M. and Dunn, Robert R. and Smith, Adrian A.}, year={2018}, month={Feb} }