@article{tuttle_mccall_land_2021, title={The crime decline in cross-national context: a panel analysis of homicide rates within latent trajectory groups}, volume={22}, ISSN={["1744-0580"]}, DOI={10.1080/17440572.2021.1920931}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT During the 1990s, the United States and other wealthy democracies experienced a decline in homicide rates. However, not all nations shared this trend. Despite disparate homicide patterns, researchers usually examine the average effect of correlates on homicide, potentially obscuring the impact of heterogeneity within large samples. The current study addresses this implicit homogeneity assumption by identifying three distinct latent trajectory groups of homicide trends among 77 nations from 1989 to 2010. To examine differences in the correlates of homicide trends, we analyse the impact of demographic and economic influences on homicide rates in separate fixed-effects panel regression analyses for each trajectory group as well as for the overall sample. We find that demographic and economic forces impact homicide rates differently across subsets of nations. Our findings suggest that universal explanations of 1990s cross-national homicide trends are misleading, as the same set of factors influence homicide rates differently across national contexts.}, number={3}, journal={GLOBAL CRIME}, author={Tuttle, James and McCall, Patricia and Land, Kenneth}, year={2021}, month={Jul}, pages={240–264} }
 @article{tuttle_mccall_land_2018, title={Latent Trajectories of Cross-National Homicide Trends: Structural Characteristics of Underlying Groups}, volume={22}, ISSN={["1552-6720"]}, DOI={10.1177/1088767918774083}, abstractNote={ Relative to studies of U.S. homicide trends, few have investigated cross-national trends. We explore hidden heterogeneity across a sample of 82 nations between 1980 and 2010, and examine (a) what distinct latent trajectories are represented among these nations? and (b) what structural factors characterize these latent trajectory groups? World Health Organization mortality data were used for the trajectory analyses wherein three distinct groups were identified. Structural characteristics of each group are compared to determine which factors account for their trajectories. Characteristics that predicted group placement include a development index, divorced males, female labor force participation, and Latin American region. }, number={4}, journal={HOMICIDE STUDIES}, author={Tuttle, James and McCall, Patricia L. and Land, Kenneth C.}, year={2018}, month={Nov}, pages={343–369} }
 @article{dollar_mccall_land_fink_2017, title={Age Structure and Neighborhood Homicide: Testing and Extending the Differential Institutional Engagement Hypothesis}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1552-6720"]}, DOI={10.1177/1088767917702474}, abstractNote={We examine the empirical applicability of differential institutional engagement in explaining the youth age structure effect on neighborhood homicide. Using the National Neighborhood Crime Study and Census data, we conduct a multilevel spatial analysis of homicides in 8,307 census tracts. We find support for three indicators of differential institutional engagement (disengaged youth, educational engagement, employment engagement). An additional dimension of institutional engagement (familial engagement) operates in the expected direction but is not statistically significant. We argue that previous cross-sectional studies reporting a null or negative relationship between percentage of young and homicide are due to omitting measures of institutional youth (dis)engagement.}, number={4}, journal={HOMICIDE STUDIES}, author={Dollar, Cindy Brooks and McCall, Patricia L. and Land, Kenneth C. and Fink, Joshua}, year={2017}, month={Nov}, pages={243–266} }
 @article{parker_stansfield_mccall_2016, title={Temporal changes in racial violence, 1980 to 2006: A latent trajectory approach}, volume={47}, ISSN={["1873-6203"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.06.001}, abstractNote={The study examines the ability of a latent trajectory approach to advance our understanding of the temporal trends in white and black homicide rates over a critical period, 1980 to 2006. After establishing distinct trajectories that reveal hidden racial heterogeneity, we estimate which of two dominant arguments concerning the changes in homicide rates over time: 1) macrostructural conditions and 2) crime control and drug sales—best explain the latent class race-specific homicide rate memberships at the city level. Using homicide data from the Uniform Crime Reports along with decennial U.S. census data across three time periods, we employ both latent trajectory and time series approaches. Our latent trajectory approach identified three unique trends or groupings of cities based on white and black homicide rates, reflecting “high”, “medium” and “low” temporal homicide trends. Time series models highlight variation in which characteristics contributed to the distinct race-specific homicide trends by trajectory group. Together, this study reveals hidden heterogeneity among American cities with respect to temporal trends that inform the current debate about diversity in the location and magnitude of the crime drop as well as which factors contributed to homicide trends by racial groups. Implications are discussed.}, journal={JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE}, author={Parker, Karen F. and Stansfield, Richard and McCall, Patricia L.}, year={2016}, month={Dec}, pages={1–11} }
 @article{thames_mccall_2014, title={A longitudinal examination of the effects of social support on homicide across European regions}, volume={8}, number={2}, journal={International Journal of Conflict and Violence}, author={Thames, K. M. and McCall, P. L.}, year={2014}, pages={243–261} }
 @article{mccall_brauer_2014, title={Social welfare support and homicide: Longitudinal analyses of European countries from 1994 to 2010}, volume={48}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.05.009}, abstractNote={The purpose of this research is to explore the extent to which retrenchment in welfare support is related to homicide trends across European countries between 1994 and 2010. Using a longitudinal decomposition design that allows for stronger causal inferences compared to typical cross-sectional designs, we examine these potential linkages between social support spending and homicide with data collected from a heterogeneous sample of European nations, including twenty Western nations and nine less frequently analyzed East-Central nations, during recent years in which European nations generally witnessed substantial changes in homicide rates as well as both economic prosperity and fiscal crisis. Results suggest that even incremental, short-term changes in welfare support spending are associated with short-term reductions in homicide—specifically, impacting homicide rates within two to three years for this sample of European nations.}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Brauer, Jonathan R.}, year={2014}, month={Nov}, pages={90–107} }
 @article{mccall_land_dollar_parker_2013, title={The Age Structure-Crime Rate Relationship: Solving a Long-Standing Puzzle}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0748-4518"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10940-012-9175-9}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Land, Kenneth C. and Dollar, Cindy Brooks and Parker, Karen F.}, year={2013}, month={Jun}, pages={167–190} }
 @article{mccall_land_parker_2010, title={An Empirical Assessment of What We Know About Structural Covariates of Homicide Rates: A Return to a Classic 20 Years Later}, volume={14}, ISSN={["1088-7679"]}, DOI={10.1177/1088767910371166}, abstractNote={As the 20-year mark since the publication of an article by Kenneth C. Land, Patricia L. McCall, and Lawrence Cohen, “Structural Covariates of Homicide Rates: Are There Any Invariances Across Time and Social Space?” approaches, the question that these scholars originally posed is raised again: Have researchers been able to identify a set of robust structural covariates that consistently predict crime rates? Subsequent to the publication of this piece, numerous scholars have replicated and extended its conceptual, methodological, and empirical work in various ways—with more than 500 citations to date. In response to this attention, the authors first review the advances made by the Land et al. article. This is followed by a review of findings from studies published over the past 20 years to determine which structural predictors identified in the Land et al. piece continue to be prominent in the study of homicide and which structural predictors have surfaced in recent years as influential to crime rates. Using data on U.S. cities for the years 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000, the authors then present a systematic empirical assessment of the explanatory power of the covariates of homicide rates identified in the Land et al. study. Twenty years later, we find support for the claims of invariance established in Land et al. and acknowledge the contributions of this piece to the macrolevel study of homicide rates.}, number={3}, journal={HOMICIDE STUDIES}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Land, Kenneth C. and Parker, Karen F.}, year={2010}, month={Aug}, pages={219–243} }
 @article{mccall_land_parker_2011, title={Heterogeneity in the rise and decline of city-level homicide rates, 1976-2005. A latent trajectory analysis}, volume={40}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.09.007}, abstractNote={This study applies latent trajectory methods to the analysis of temporal changes in homicide rates among large US cities across recent decades. Specifically, annual homicide rates for 157 large US cities are analyzed for the 30 years from 1976 to 2005. We address the fundamental questions: Did all of cities experience similar levels and patterns of rise and decline in homicide rates over these three decades? Or is there hidden or unobserved heterogeneity with respect to these temporal patterns, thus leading to the identification of more homogeneous groupings of the cities? And if latent homogeneous groupings surface, is membership due to specific structural characteristics found within those cities? Evidence is found for the existence of four latent homicide rate trajectories. After identifying and classifying the cities into these four groups, multivariate statistical techniques are used to determine which social and economic characteristics are significant predictors of these distinct homicide trends. Criminal justice measures are also included as controls. It is found that larger cities located in the South with higher levels of resource deprivation/concentrated poverty, higher income inequality, higher percentages of the adult male population that are divorced, higher unemployment rates, higher percentages of youth, higher percentages of the population who are Hispanic and higher numbers of police per capita are more likely to be in a higher than a lower homicide trajectory group. Higher percentages of the population enrolled in colleges and universities and locations in states with higher incarceration rates are characteristics of cities associated with membership in a lower homicide trajectory group.}, number={1}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Land, Kenneth C. and Parker, Karen F.}, year={2011}, month={Jan}, pages={363–378} }
 @article{mccall_2010, title={The Invariance of Structural Covariates: Reflections on 20 Years of Homicide Research}, volume={14}, ISSN={["1088-7679"]}, DOI={10.1177/1088767910375351}, number={3}, journal={HOMICIDE STUDIES}, author={McCall, Patricia L.}, year={2010}, month={Aug}, pages={215–218} }
 @article{nieuwbeerta_mccall_elffers_eising_wittebrood_2008, title={Buurtkenmerken en slachtofferschap van moord en doodslag}, volume={50}, number={1}, journal={Tijdschrift Voor Criminologie}, author={Nieuwbeerta, P. and McCall, P. L. and Elffers, H. and Eising, K. and Wittebrood, K.}, year={2008}, pages={17–34} }
 @article{nieuwbeerta_mccall_elffers_wittebrood_2008, title={Neighborhood characteristics and individual homicide risks - Effects of social cohesion, confidence in the police, and socioeconomic disadvantage}, volume={12}, ISSN={["1088-7679"]}, DOI={10.1177/1088767907310913}, abstractNote={ This study tests hypotheses on the relationship between characteristics of neighborhoods in the Netherlands—their socioeconomic disadvantage, social cohesion, and residents' confidence in the police—and the likelihood of homicide victimization. These hypotheses are derived from social disorganization and strain/deprivation theory, but have rarely been tested at the neighborhood level. Furthermore, examining the validity of these hypotheses in the Netherlands, a country with relatively low homicide rates and geographically equal distributed social circumstances, provides a stronger test for the theories. Data from the Dutch Homicide Monitor 1996 to 2003, a national database of all homicides and their characteristics, are merged with data on characteristics of neighborhoods. Hierarchical logistic modeling is used to analyze the nested data. The results show that neighborhood social cohesion and socioeconomic disadvantage affect homicide risks, whereas indicators for confidence in the police do not have an effect. Implications for policy making and further theory development are discussed. }, number={1}, journal={HOMICIDE STUDIES}, author={Nieuwbeerta, Paul and McCall, Patricia L. and Elffers, Henk and Wittebrood, Karin}, year={2008}, month={Feb}, pages={90–116} }
 @inbook{mccall_lazarus-black_2007, title={A look at the numbers}, ISBN={0252031555}, booktitle={Everyday harm: Domestic violence, court rites, and cultures of reconciliation}, publisher={Urbana: University of Illinois Press}, author={McCall, P. L. and Lazarus-Black, M.}, year={2007} }
 @article{mccall_tittle_2007, title={Population size and suicide in US cities: A static and dynamic exploration}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0363-0234"]}, DOI={10.1521/suli.2007.37.5.553}, abstractNote={The relationship between city population size and suicide rates rarely has been examined directly, though scholars often assume such a relationship exists based on studies of the association between suicide rates and urbanization (percent of the population living in cities) in various social contexts. In an effort to determine the basic association between suicide rates and city population size, we analyze data for four time points, 1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990, using a random sample of U.S. cities with 10,000 or more population in 1960. In addition, we conduct a time series analysis of change in population size and change in suicide rates over a two decade period. Results indicate that an association between population and suicide is atypical, and even when observed is highly sensitive to methodological specifications. The results call into question the notion that larger city population size is conducive to suicide as well as the assumption that studies of suicide and urbanization can substitute for studies of suicide and city population size.}, number={5}, journal={SUICIDE AND LIFE-THREATENING BEHAVIOR}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Tittle, Charles R.}, year={2007}, month={Oct}, pages={553–564} }
 @article{mccall_nieuwbeerta_2007, title={Structural covariates of homicide rates - A European city cross-national comparative analysis}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1552-6720"]}, DOI={10.1177/1088767907304072}, abstractNote={ Most previous empirical comparative studies of homicide examine homicide rates across nations or subnational units within a single country. This study is the first in which a European cross-national city comparison is made. The article aims to provide insight into the extent that the homicide rates are related to the social and economic forces characterizing a sample of European cities. Derived from theories rooted in classic works, including social disorganization, strain, and urbanism, are six hypothesized effects of structural forces on homicide rates. Analyses show that cities' deprivation and population structure indexes are strong predictors of homicide rates. The predicted effects of unemployment rates, population heterogeneity, and age structure on homicide rates, however, were not consistently corroborated by these results. Comparing Eastern and Western European countries, the authors also find support for the influence of the country's level of development on city-level homicide rates. }, number={3}, journal={HOMICIDE STUDIES}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Nieuwbeerta, Paul}, year={2007}, month={Aug}, pages={167–188} }
 @article{mccall_parker_macdonald_2008, title={The dynamic relationship between homicide rates and social, economic, and political factors from 1970 to 2000}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0049-089X"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.09.007}, abstractNote={After reaching their highest levels of the 20th century, homicide rates in the United States declined precipitously in the early 1990s. This study examines a number of factors that might have contributed to both the sharp increase and decline in homicide rates. We use a pooled cross-sectional time series model to assess the relationship between changes in structural conditions and the change in homicide rates over four decennial time points (1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000). We assess the extent to which structural covariates associated with social, economic and political conditions commonly used in homicide research (e.g., urban decay, poverty, and the weakening of family and social bonds) are related to the change in homicide rates. Along with these classic covariates, we incorporate some contemporary explanations (e.g., imprisonment rates and drug trafficking) that have been proposed to address the recent decline in urban homicide rates. Our results indicate that both classic and contemporary explanations are related to homicide trends over the last three decades of the 20th century. Specifically, changes in resource deprivation and in the relative size of the youth population are associated with changes in the homicide rate across these time points. Increased imprisonment is also significantly related to homicide changes. These findings lead us to conclude that efforts to understand the changing nature of homicide will require serious consideration, if not integration, of classic and contemporary explanations.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={McCall, Patricia L. and Parker, Karen F. and MacDonald, John M.}, year={2008}, month={Sep}, pages={721–735} }
 @article{lazarus-black_mccall_2006, title={The politics of place: Practice, process, and kinship in domestic violence courts}, volume={65}, ISSN={["0018-7259"]}, DOI={10.17730/humo.65.2.5l4grc4qmk4rynuk}, abstractNote={This article describes the processing of domestic violence cases in Trinidad with implications for the implementation of domestic violence law more generally in other common law courts including the U.S. It is based on fieldwork in magistrates courts and a statistical analysis of domestic violence court records-the first of its kind for the English-speaking Caribbean. We identify a "politics of place" that makes courts "discordant locales" places in which persons requesting protection orders will encounter different forms of structural practical and ideological resistance to their claims to rights. We explore the extent to which applications for protection orders are dismissed withdrawn or awarded protective action uncovering differences in case dispositions between the courts. Our analysis highlights the architecture organization and workloads of the courts contrasting judicial styles and the role of kinship ideology and practice in shaping litigants use of the courts. We reveal a "public secret" about domestic violence litigation of theoretical and practical interest to anthropologists scholars and activists concerned with domestic violence and students of law and society research. (authors)}, number={2}, journal={HUMAN ORGANIZATION}, author={Lazarus-Black, M and McCall, PL}, year={2006}, pages={140–155} }
 @article{mccall_parker_2005, title={A dynamic model of racial competition, racial inequality, and interracial violence}, volume={75}, ISSN={["0038-0245"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1475-682X.2005.00122.x}, abstractNote={Race relations and stratification literatures offer explicit expectations concerning interracial conflict. Causal arguments derived from these perspectives are examined in this study to explore their ability to explain interracial violence above and beyond criminological perspectives of economic deprivation and racial inequality. The vast majority of previous aggregate-level studies on violence are cross-sectional, ignoring the importance of a dynamic model that incorporates the influence of changing structural conditions in urban areas on interracial violence. We explore theories that incorporate dynamic explanations for the influence of structural factors related to crime as well as racial conflict and employ a methodological approach that models the change in structural conditions for rare events such as interracial homicide. We find that changes between 1980 and 1990 in urban Black and Hispanic population composition, racial competition and racial inequality differentially explain the variation in White and Black interracial homicide offending.}, number={2}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY}, author={McCall, PL and Parker, KF}, year={2005}, month={May}, pages={273–293} }
 @article{ellison_burr_mccall_2003, title={The enduring puzzle of Southern homicide: Is regional religious culture the missing piece?}, volume={7}, DOI={10.1177/1088767903256463}, abstractNote={ The purpose of this study is to examine the issue of regional differences in homicide rates by focusing on the role of religious culture—specifically, the influence of the southern brand of conservative Protestantism in sustaining and legitimating distinctive forms of violence. A rationale for focusing on Southern religious culture is outlined and several hypotheses derived from these arguments are tested using 1980 data on homicide rates, religious concentrations, and socioeconomic and other characteristics of 247 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). After controlling for a number of relevant covariates, this study finds a positive relationship between percent conservative Protestant and homicide rates; the effect is significant in Southern MSAs but not in non-Southern MSAs. The findings' implications for research on regional variations in violence are discussed and promising directions for future research on this issue are outlined. }, number={4}, journal={Homicide Studies}, author={Ellison, C. G. and Burr, J. A. and McCall, P. L.}, year={2003}, pages={326–352} }
 @article{mccall_land_2004, title={Trends in environmental lead exposure and troubled youth, 1960-1995: an age-period-cohort-characteristic analysis}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1096-0317"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssresearch.2003.06.002}, abstractNote={Beginning in the mid-1980s and extending into the early 1990s, the United States experienced a wave of increased youth violence and teenage pregnancy. Nevin (2000) proffers a cohort-based explanation that these trends can be attributed to corresponding trends in gasoline lead exposure during the youths' early years. He contends that the increased consumption of adversely impacted their intelligence levels (IQs). This decreased their intellectual ability, resulted in poor decisions made during their teen and young adult years, and in turn, led to disproportionally high level of criminal involvement and unwed pregnancies among this cohort. The present study evaluates Nevin's causal model by testing the connection between trends in lead exposure and youthful problem behavior with age-period-cohort-characteristic (APCC) models. Our research finds no support for this cohort explanation.}, number={2}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={McCall, PL and Land, KC}, year={2004}, month={Jun}, pages={339–359} }
 @book{mccall_smith_bissler_2002, title={Assessing the relative accuracy of neural network models in reducing recidivism: Report to the North Carolina Governor's Crime Commission}, publisher={Raleigh: North Carolina Governor's Crime Commission}, author={McCall, P. L. and Smith, W. R. and Bissler, D. L.}, year={2002} }
 @article{parker_mccall_lane_2002, title={Exploring the racial discrimination and competition processes of race-specific violence in the urban context}, volume={28}, DOI={10.1177/08969205020280011401}, abstractNote={There has been increasing effort devoted to examining the linkages between urban disadvantage and race-specifi c violence in the sociological literature. Much of this literature has either focused on identifying the consequences of urban disadvantage on different racial groups, particularly as it relates to offending rates, or documenting the impact of labor market factors on intra-racial and inter-racial violence. While this literature advances our understanding of the interconnections between race, economic disadvantage and violence in the urban context, our exploration into this literature has only begun. In this paper, we outline the contributions of the racial stratifi cation literature to the study of urban violence and argue that this literature plays an essential role in moving the study of race and urban violence forward. We offer ways (avenues) to incorporate the racial competition and exploitation literature into the study of violence within and between racial groups. In doing so, we emphasize the importance of “process” by delineating the interconnections between labor market exploitation, competition, and violence.}, number={1/2}, journal={Critical Sociology}, author={Parker, K. F. and McCall, P. L. and Lane, J.}, year={2002}, pages={235–255} }
 @article{av d'unger_land_mccall_2002, title={Sex differences in age patterns of delinquent/criminal careers: Results from Poisson latent class analyses of the Philadelphia Cohort study}, volume={18}, ISSN={["0748-4518"]}, DOI={10.1023/A:1021117626767}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={AV D'Unger and Land, KC and McCall, PL}, year={2002}, month={Dec}, pages={349–375} }
 @inbook{bruce_roscigno_mccall_2002, title={Structure, context, and agency in the reproduction of Black-on-Black violence}, ISBN={0754622304}, booktitle={Violence}, publisher={Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate/Dartmouth}, author={Bruce, M. A. and Roscigno, V. J. and McCall, P. L.}, year={2002} }
 @article{land_nagin_mccall_2001, title={Discrete-time hazard regression models with hidden heterogeneity - The semiparametric mixed Poisson regression approach}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0049-1241"]}, DOI={10.1177/0049124101029003004}, abstractNote={ Previous methodological research has shown that hidden heterogeneity in hazard rate regression models—in the form of systematic differences between sample members in the risk or hazard of making a transition due to unobserved variables not accounted for by the measured covariates—can produce biased parameter estimates and erroneous inferences. However, few empirical applications of hazard regression do more than pay lip service to the complications of hidden heterogeneity. In part, this is due to the relative inaccessibility of the mathematical apparatus of continuous-time hazard regression methodology with flexible nonparametric specifications on the hidden heterogeneity. This article presents new methods for incorporating nonparametric specifications of hidden heterogeneity into hazard regressions by developing discrete-time Poisson rate/complementary log-log hazard regression models with nonparametric hidden heterogeneity that are analogous to the continuous-time models of Heckman and Singer. Maximum-likelihood estimators and associated hypothesis tests are described. An empirical application to data on criminal careers, which illustrates the utility of models that explicitly incorporate hidden heterogeneity, is presented. }, number={3}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS & RESEARCH}, author={Land, KC and Nagin, DS and McCall, PL}, year={2001}, month={Feb}, pages={342–373} }
 @inbook{land_mccall_2001, title={The indeterminancy of forecasts of crime rates and juvenile offenses}, ISBN={0309068428}, booktitle={Juvenile crime, juvenile justice}, publisher={Washington, DC: National Academy Press}, author={Land, K. C. and McCall, P. L.}, editor={J. McCord, C. S. Widom and Crowell, N. A.Editors}, year={2001} }
 @article{austin_bruce_carroll_mccall_richards_2001, title={The use of incarceration in the United States}, volume={10}, number={1}, journal={Critical Criminology (Richmond, B.C.)}, author={Austin, J. and Bruce, M. A. and Carroll, L. and McCall, P. L. and Richards, S. C.}, year={2001}, pages={1–25} }
 @inbook{parker_mccall_land_1999, title={Determining social-structural predictors of homicide: Units of analysis and related methodological concerns}, ISBN={0761907653}, booktitle={Homicide: A sourcebook of social research}, publisher={Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications}, author={Parker, K. F. and McCall, P. L. and Land, K. C.}, editor={M. D. Smith and Zahn, M. A.Editors}, year={1999}, pages={107–124} }
 @inbook{zahn_mccall_1999, title={Homicide in the 20th century United States: Trends & patterns}, ISBN={076190767X}, DOI={10.4135/9781483328430.n2}, booktitle={Studying and preventing homicide: Issues and challenges}, publisher={Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications}, author={Zahn, M. A. and McCall, P. L.}, editor={M. D. Smith and Zahn, M. A.Editors}, year={1999}, pages={10–30} }
 @article{parker_mccall_1999, title={Structural conditions and racial homicide patterns: A look at the multiple disadvantages in urban areas}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0011-1384"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00493.x}, abstractNote={This research examines the differential effects of structural conditions on race‐specific victim and offender homicide rates in large U.S. cities in 1990. While structural theories of race relations and criminological explanations are reviewed, particular attention is given to those structural theories that highlight racial competition, economic and labor market opportunity, and racial segregation as essential for an examination of racially disaggregated homicide offending. The effects of these and other structural conditions are estimated for four racially distinct homicide offending models—black intraracial, white intraracial, black interracial, and white interracial homicides. The results suggest that the structural conditions that lead to race‐specific victim and offender homicide rates differ significantly among the four models. Economic deprivation and local opportunity structures are found to influence significantly the rates of intraracial homicide offending, while racial inequality contributes solely to black interracial homicide rates. In addition, our findings indicate that blacks and whites face different economic and social realities related to economic deprivation and social isolation. The differential impact of these structural conditions and other labor market factors are discussed.}, number={3}, journal={CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Parker, KF and McCall, PL}, year={1999}, month={Aug}, pages={447–477} }
 @article{av d'unger_land_mccall_nagin_1998, title={How many latent classes of delinquent/criminal careers? Results from mixed Poisson regression analyses}, volume={103}, ISSN={["0002-9602"]}, DOI={10.1086/231402}, abstractNote={This article reviews questions about different categories of criminal careers, summarizes Poisson latent class regression models, describes procedures for evaluating the optimal number of latent classes, and applies this methodology to data from male cohorts taken from the cities of London, Philadelphia, and Racine. Four latent classes of offending careers is an appropriate number for the London cohort, but five classes can be justified for the Philadelphia data. In the case of the Racine cohorts, five classes may be detected for the 1942 and 1955 cohorts but only four for the 1949 cohort. Despite the varying numbers of latent offending classes, there clearly is a small number of typical age patterns.}, number={6}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY}, author={AV D'Unger and Land, KC and McCall, PL and Nagin, DS}, year={1998}, month={May}, pages={1593–1630} }
 @article{bruce_roscigno_mccall_1998, title={Structure, context, and agency in the reproduction of black-on-black violence}, volume={2}, DOI={10.1177/1362480698002001002}, abstractNote={ Violence has a substantial impact on morbidity and mortality within the African-American community. While certainly providing insight into macro- and micro-level forces, existing conceptualizations of the race and violence linkage are limited. We discuss these limitations and then offer a more comprehensive and integrated theoretical framework for understanding disparate patterns. Rather than reducing race-specific violence outcomes to social-psychological or deterministic structural factors, the theoretical model we construct suggests that violence among African Americans (and other subordinated racial/ethnic groups for that matter) is best conceived of as a dynamic and emergent phenomenon, patterned by the intersection of social structure, local context, and agency. }, number={1}, journal={Theoretical Criminology}, author={Bruce, M. A. and Roscigno, V. J. and McCall, P. L.}, year={1998}, pages={29–55} }
 @article{parker_mccall_1997, title={Adding another piece to the inequality-homicide puzzle: The impact of structural inequality on racially disaggregated homicide rates}, volume={1}, DOI={10.1177/1088767997001001004}, abstractNote={ Criminologists have produced mounting evidence that economic deprivation, social disorganization, and racial inequality are associated with homicide rates. Our research agenda incorporates both criminological and structural inequality theories into the study of the influence of structural covariates on race-specific homicide rates. We examine the effects of economic deprivation, labor market competition, racial segregation, and racial inequality on interracial and intraracial homicide rates for a sample of U.S. cities in 1980. The results of principal components and multiple regression analyses suggest that economic deprivation affects the intraracial homicide rates for Whites and Blacks, as well as the rates of White interracial homicide offending. Racial segregation and racial inequality were found to contribute significantly to the Black interracial homicide rate. In addition, we find that labor market competition affects the rates of White and Black interracial homicide. The contribution of structural theories for studies of homicide and the implications of these findings are discussed. }, number={1}, journal={Homicide Studies}, author={Parker, K. F. and McCall, P. L.}, year={1997}, pages={35–60} }
 @article{burr_mccall_powellgriner_1997, title={Female labor force participation and suicide}, volume={44}, ISSN={["0277-9536"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0277-9536(96)00294-8}, abstractNote={To test the role conflict and role enhancement hypotheses, this paper examines the link between female labor force participation and suicide. Using a special tabulation of age/sex-specific suicide data for metropolitan areas in the United States, we estimate separate multivariate regression models for women and men in 1970 and 1980. Our findings show that in 1970 the level of female labor force participation among married women with small children is not related to the female suicide rate but is related to the male suicide rate in a positive direction. By 1980 the relationship between female labor force participation and the male and female suicide rate is negative, suggesting that the well-being of both men and women is enhanced by role accumulation among women.}, number={12}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE & MEDICINE}, author={Burr, JA and McCall, PL and PowellGriner, E}, year={1997}, month={Jun}, pages={1847–1859} }
 @article{ellison_burr_mccall_1997, title={Religious homogeneity and metropolitan suicide rates}, volume={76}, ISSN={["0037-7732"]}, DOI={10.2307/2580326}, number={1}, journal={SOCIAL FORCES}, author={Ellison, CG and Burr, JA and McCall, PL}, year={1997}, month={Sep}, pages={273–299} }
 @article{land_mccall_nagin_1996, title={A comparison of Poisson, negative binomial, and semiparametric mixed Poisson regression models - With empirical applications to criminal careers data}, volume={24}, ISSN={["0049-1241"]}, DOI={10.1177/0049124196024004001}, abstractNote={ Specifications and moment properties of the univariate Poisson and negative binomial distributions are briefly reviewed and illustrated. Properties and limitations of the corresponding poisson and negative binomial (gamma mixtures of Poissons) regression models are described. It is shown how a misspecification of the mixing distribution of a mixed Poisson model to accommodate hidden heterogeneity ascribable to unobserved variables—although not affecting the consistency of maximum likelihood estimators of the Poisson mean rate parameter or its regression parameterization—can lead to inflated t ratios of regression coefficients and associated incorrect inferences. Then the recently developed semiparametric maximum likelihood estimator for regression models composed of arbitrary mixtures of Poisson processes is specified and further developed. It is concluded that the semiparametric mixed Poisson regression model adds considerable flexibility to Poisson-family regression models and provides opportunities for interpretation of empirical patterns not available in the conventional approaches. }, number={4}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS & RESEARCH}, author={Land, KC and McCall, PL and Nagin, DS}, year={1996}, month={May}, pages={387–442} }
 @article{linz_land_shafer_graesser_donnerstein_mccall_1995, title={DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN THE LEGAL CODE AND COMMUNITY STANDARDS FOR SEX AND VIOLENCE - AN EMPIRICAL CHALLENGE TO TRADITIONAL ASSUMPTIONS IN OBSCENITY LAW}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0023-9216"]}, DOI={10.2307/3054056}, abstractNote={Community standards for sexually explicit and violent depictions were measured using a representative sample of Western Tennessee residents. The residents were randomly assigned to view sexually explicit films charged in an obscenity case, violent materials, or control materials. The results showed that residents believe the sexually explicit films charged in the case did not appeal to a self-reported shameful, morbid, or unhealthy (prurient) interest in sex, and are not patently offensive. Community members indicated they would be substantially less accepting of the sexually explicit materials if they contained rape and bondage, and they showed virtually no acceptance of materials including children actors under the age of 18. Despite acceptance of sexually explicit films, there was no evidence that a majority of members of the community accepted violent “slasher” films. However, participants believed that the majority of others in the community tolerated the violent films they had viewed. These findings are discussed in light of an obscenity standard that presumes to take into account conventional morality and community opinion and the discrepancy between the obscenity code and community standards.}, number={1}, journal={LAW & SOCIETY REVIEW}, author={LINZ, D and LAND, KC and SHAFER, BJ and GRAESSER, AC and DONNERSTEIN, E and MCCALL, PL}, year={1995}, pages={127–168} }
 @article{burr_mccall_powell-griner_1994, title={Catholic religion and suicide: The mediating effect of divorce}, volume={75}, number={2}, journal={Social Science Quarterly}, author={Burr, J. A. and McCall, P. L. and Powell-Griner, E.}, year={1994}, pages={300–318} }
 @article{whitmore_mccall_1994, title={Determinants of fear and perceived risk for HIV infection among police officers}, volume={2}, DOI={10.1016/1068-8595(94)90010-8}, abstractNote={Police officers often come into contact with persons who are considered members of high risk groups for HIV infection, such as intravenous drug users and prostitutes. The present exploratory study employs field research methodology to observe patrol officers in their work settings in urban and rural locations to investigate contributing factors to their perceived risk of HIV infection. Four notable findings emerged. First, departmental training may not lower fear or perceived risk of HIV infection among police officers. Second, awareness of modes of transmission may increase perceived risk among officers but awareness of and access to protective measures may decrease fear and perceived risk. Third, access to protective measures is not always perceived as enough to ensure safety for officers who are faced with administering first aid to bleeding persons who may be HIV positive. Fourth, “street wisdom” may give police officers an illusion of safety.}, journal={Applied Behavioral Science Review}, author={Whitmore, J. T. and McCall, P. L.}, year={1994}, pages={139–156} }
 @article{land_mccall_parker_1994, title={LOGISTIC VERSUS HAZARDS REGRESSION-ANALYSES IN EVALUATION RESEARCH - AN EXPOSITION AND APPLICATION TO THE NORTH-CAROLINA COURT COUNSELORS INTENSIVE PROTECTIVE SUPERVISION PROJECT}, volume={18}, ISSN={["1552-3926"]}, DOI={10.1177/0193841X9401800403}, abstractNote={ This article examines and compares the advantages of employing logistic and hazards regression techniques in assessing both the overall impact of a treatment program and the extent to which the impact varies among different client subgroups. Data gathered from the North Carolina Court Counselors' Intensive Protective Supervision Project provides a context for the application of these statistical techniques to assess this program's effectiveness. This experimental project was designed topnovide intensive supervision for status offenders who are placed under the protective supervision of the juvenile courts in North Carolina. It is found that, although intensive supervision had the desired impact of reducing the probability of delinquent offenses during the early (first year and a half) phase of the project, this effect deteriorated over the full three and a half years of the experiment. In addition, the hazards regression analysis shows that youths under intensive supervtsion failed (recidivated with status or delinquent offenses) at a more rapid rate than those under regular supervision. Implications are drawn for the management and effectiveness of intensive supervision programs. }, number={4}, journal={EVALUATION REVIEW}, author={LAND, KC and MCCALL, PL and PARKER, KF}, year={1994}, month={Aug}, pages={411–437} }
 @article{mccall_land_1994, title={TRENDS IN WHITE MALE-ADOLESCENT, YOUNG-ADULT, AND ELDERLY SUICIDE - ARE THERE COMMON UNDERLYING STRUCTURAL FACTORS}, volume={23}, ISSN={["0049-089X"]}, DOI={10.1006/ssre.1994.1003}, abstractNote={Disaggregation of suicide trends by age, sex, and race reveals that, since World War II, the most dramatic changes have occurred among white males at the adolescent, young adult, and elderly ages. This study utilizes social indicator time series regression models to determine if these trends are differentially affected by underlying structural factors. Structural factors, identified through application of Durkheimian anomie and social disintegration theses, include trends in economic status, marital status, household composition, government support programs, and cohort size. Findings indicate that (1) changes in family structure and relative cohort size contribute to the variation in the adolescent and young-adult white male suicide trends; (2) the suicide trends of the young-old white male population are associated with trends in elderly widowhood, Social Security benefits, and elderly cohort size; and (3) none of the social indicators included in this analysis explains the suicide trends among the old-old white male population. Therefore, these population subgroups are differentially affected through structural factors which are variably salient for specific groups at different stages in the life course.}, number={1}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={MCCALL, PL and LAND, KC}, year={1994}, month={Mar}, pages={57–81} }
 @article{land_mccall_1993, title={ESTIMATING THE EFFECT OF NONIGNORABLE NONRESPONSE IN SAMPLE-SURVEYS - AN APPLICATION OF RUBIN BAYESIAN METHOD TO THE ESTIMATION OF COMMUNITY STANDARDS FOR OBSCENITY}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1552-8294"]}, DOI={10.1177/0049124193021003001}, abstractNote={ Rubin (1977) developed a method for estimating, in a subjective sense, the effect of nonignorable nonresponse in sample surveys. Based on Bayesian techniques, this method produces a subjective probability interval for the statistic, such as the mean of a response variable, that would have been calculated if all nonrespondents had responded. Demographic and socioeconomic background information that is recorded for both respondents and nonrespondents plays an important role in sharpening the subjective interval - through the adjustment of a regression equation that uses this information. In this article, Rubin's method-sometimes called the mixture modeling approach to drawing inferences from self-selected samples-is reviewed and applied to real survey and experimental data on community standards for sexually explicit material in which respondents were asked to judge the material's appeal to prurient interest and patent offensiveness (two of the three legal criteria for a determination of obscenity). A critically important substantive issue in this context is whether or not the sample self-selection processes governing the willingness of individuals to participate in the experiment have so truncated the frequency distributions of participant judgments about obscenity that they are grossly biased and inaccurate. It is shown how the mixture modeling approach sheds light on the possible extent of such biases. }, number={3}, journal={SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS & RESEARCH}, author={LAND, KC and MCCALL, PL}, year={1993}, month={Feb}, pages={291–316} }
 @inbook{land_mccall_williams_1992, title={Intensive supervision of status offenders: Evidence on the continuity of treatment effects for juveniles and a "Hawthorne effect" for counselors}, booktitle={The interaction of theory and practice: Experimental studies of intervention}, publisher={New York: Guilford Press}, author={Land, K. C. and McCall, P. L. and Williams, J. R.}, editor={McCord, J. and Tremblay, R.Editors}, year={1992} }
 @article{mccall_land_cohen_1992, title={VIOLENT CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR - IS THERE A GENERAL AND CONTINUING INFLUENCE OF THE SOUTH}, volume={21}, ISSN={["0049-089X"]}, DOI={10.1016/0049-089X(92)90009-6}, abstractNote={Historically, the South has been characterized by high homicide rates relative to other regions in the United States. The present study attempts to make sense of the disparate findings among extant studies of the Southern culture of violence thesis by correcting for their methodological problems and by examining violent crime rates at three levels of aggregation-cities, metropolitan areas, and states—and across three decennial census periods—1960, 1970, and 1980. Whereas most studies of the Southern culture of violence thesis use homicide rates as the focal measure of violent behavior, the present study investigates the generalizability of the Southern culture of violence thesis to other violent index crimes. In addition, the models are also compared over time to determine whether the Southern regional effects persist over time and, if so, whether there is a diminishing effect of region. The results provide evidence for the existence of a Southern culture which supports situation-specific types of violence (i.e., defensive acts) rather than violence in general. Furhermore, the findings provide mixed support that cultural effects diminish over time.}, number={3}, journal={SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH}, author={MCCALL, PL and LAND, KC and COHEN, LE}, year={1992}, month={Sep}, pages={286–310} }
 @article{mccall_1991, title={ADOLESCENT AND ELDERLY WHITE MALE SUICIDE TRENDS - EVIDENCE OF CHANGING WELL-BEING}, volume={46}, ISSN={["0022-1422"]}, DOI={10.1093/geronj/46.1.S43}, abstractNote={This study investigated the relationship proposed by Preston (1984) between suicide trends and the changing status of America's dependent populations. Since World War II, as adolescent suicide rates have risen and elderly suicide rates declined, the rates have generally converged. In particular, adolescent and elderly suicide rates among White males reveal some of the most dramatic shifts relative to other age-race-sex-specific groups. This social-demographic study examined indicators of well-being as proposed by Preston (1984) to determine whether these structural factors can account for White male adolescent and elderly suicide trends. Using annual U.S. suicide rates for the White male populations aged 15 to 24 and 65 and over, I examined the hypotheses that (a) the rising suicide trend among the adolescent population is associated with a deteriorating state of well-being for adolescents, and (b) the generally declining suicide trend among the elderly population is associated with an improving state of well-being for elderly persons. A post-World War II annual time series analysis was used in this research for the period 1946 to 1986. The findings suggest that family dissolution and White children living in poverty are associated with White male adolescent suicide trends and that societal affluence is associated with White male elderly suicide trends. The implications of these findings for future adolescent and elderly suicide trends are also addressed.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNALS OF GERONTOLOGY}, author={MCCALL, PL}, year={1991}, month={Jan}, pages={S43–S51} }
 @article{land_mccall_cohen_1991, title={CHARACTERISTICS OF UNITED-STATES CITIES WITH EXTREME (HIGH OR LOW) CRIME RATES - RESULTS OF DISCRIMINANT ANALYSES OF 1960, 1970, AND 1980 DATA}, volume={24}, ISSN={["0303-8300"]}, DOI={10.1007/BF00306080}, number={3}, journal={SOCIAL INDICATORS RESEARCH}, author={LAND, KC and MCCALL, PL and COHEN, LE}, year={1991}, month={May}, pages={209–231} }
 @article{linz_donnerstein_land_mccall_scott_klein_shafer_lance_1991, title={Estimating community standards: The use of social science evidence}, volume={55}, DOI={10.1086/269242}, abstractNote={Journal Article ESTIMATING COMMUNITY STANDARDS: THE USE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE EVIDENCE IN AN OBSCENITY PROSECUTION Get access DANIEL LINZ, DANIEL LINZ DANIEL LINZ is Associate Professor of Communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar EDWARD DONNERSTEIN, EDWARD DONNERSTEIN EDWARD DONNERSTEIN is Professor of Communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar KENNETH C. LAND, KENNETH C. LAND KENNETH C. LAND is Professor of Sociology at Duke University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar PATRICIA L. McCALL, PATRICIA L. McCALL PATRICIA L. MCCALL is a graduate student in the Department of Sociology at Duke University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar JOSEPH SCOTT, JOSEPH SCOTT JOSEPH SCOTT is Associate Professor of Sociology at Ohio State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar BRADLEY J. SHAFER, BRADLEY J. SHAFER BRADLEY J. SHAFER and LEE J. KLEIN are attorneys at law, Klein & Shafer P.C., Okemos, MI Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar LEE J. KLEIN, LEE J. KLEIN BRADLEY J. SHAFER and LEE J. KLEIN are attorneys at law, Klein & Shafer P.C., Okemos, MI Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar LARRY LANCE LARRY LANCE LARRY LANCE is Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of North Carolina, Charlotte Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Public Opinion Quarterly, Volume 55, Issue 1, SPRING 1991, Pages 80–112, https://doi.org/10.1086/269242 Published: 01 January 1991}, journal={Public Opinion Quarterly}, author={Linz, D. and Donnerstein, E. and Land, K. C. and McCall, P. L. and Scott, J. and Klein, L. J. and Shafer, B. J. and Lance, L.}, year={1991}, pages={80–112} }
 @article{snow_robinson_mccall_1990, title={Cooling out men in singles bars and night clubs: Observations on the interpersonal survival strategies of women in public places}, volume={19}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Contemporary Ethnography}, author={Snow, D. A. and Robinson, C. and McCall, P. L.}, year={1990}, pages={425–449} }
 @article{land_mccall_williams_1990, title={SOMETHING THAT WORKS IN JUVENILE JUSTICE - AN EVALUATION OF THE NORTH-CAROLINA COURT COUNSELORS INTENSIVE PROTECTIVE SUPERVISION RANDOMIZED EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT, 1987-1989}, volume={14}, ISSN={["1552-3926"]}, DOI={10.1177/0193841X9001400602}, abstractNote={ Recently, the state of North Carolina has supported a randomized experimental project designed to provide intensive supervision services for undisciplined youths (status offenders or youths referred to the courts for runaway, truant, or ungovernable behaviors) placed under the protective supervision of the juvenile courts. As compared to regular procedures for juvenile court protective supervision of status offenders, the Intensive Protective Supervision Project (IPSP) involves more extensive and proactive contact between the court counselor, the status offender, and the status offender's family. The essential idea of the IPSP is that through the intensive supervision and provision of professional services to status offenders it may be possible to decrease the rate of occurrence of additional status offenses and the likelihood that the youths will commit more serious delinquent offenses. Results from a statistical and field-based evalu ation of the IPSP experiment suggest that the project is quite successful in achieving its goals for those undisciplined youths who have not previously been charged with delinquent offenses. }, number={6}, journal={EVALUATION REVIEW}, author={LAND, KC and MCCALL, PL and WILLIAMS, JR}, year={1990}, month={Dec}, pages={574–606} }
 @article{land_mccall_cohen_1990, title={STRUCTURAL COVARIATES OF HOMICIDE RATES - ARE THERE ANY INVARIANCES ACROSS TIME AND SOCIAL SPACE}, volume={95}, ISSN={["0002-9602"]}, DOI={10.1086/229381}, abstractNote={This study demonstrate that the empirical literature on the structural convariates of homicide rates contains inconsistent findings across different time periods and different geographical units. This apparent variance of findings may be due to statistical or methodological artifacts of particular studies, such as different time periods covered, units of analysis, samples, model specification, and problems of statistical analysis and inference. A baseline regression model using 11 structural covariates is estimated for cities, metropolitan areas, and states in 1960, 1970, and 1980. The empirical estimates of this model exhibit instability because of high levels of collinearity among several regressors. Principal components analysis is applied to simplify the dimensionally of the structural covariate space. Reestimation of the regression model then indicates that the apparent inconsistencies across time and social space are greatly reduced. The theoretical significance of the findings for substantive theories of violent crime are discussed.}, number={4}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY}, author={LAND, KC and MCCALL, PL and COHEN, LE}, year={1990}, month={Jan}, pages={922–963} }
 @article{ellison_mccall_1989, title={REGION AND VIOLENT ATTITUDES RECONSIDERED - COMMENT}, volume={95}, ISSN={["0002-9602"]}, DOI={10.1086/229218}, abstractNote={To conserve space for the publication of original contributions to scholarship, the comments in this section must be limited to brief critiques. They are expected to address specific errors or flaws in articles and reviews published in the AJS. Comments on articles are not to exceed 1,500 words, those on reviews 750 words. Longer or less narrowly focused critiques should be submitted as articles. Authors of articles and reviews are invited to reply to comments, keeping their replies to the length of the specific omment. The AJS does not publish commenters' rebuttals to authors' replies. We reserve the right to reject inappropriate or excessively minor comments.}, number={1}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY}, author={ELLISON, CG and MCCALL, PL}, year={1989}, month={Jul}, pages={174–178} }