@article{taylor_deleo_albright_koebele_birkland_crow_zhang_shanahan_2023, title={Estimating the effect of policy entrepreneurship on individual vaccination behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic}, volume={12}, ISSN={["2380-6567"]}, DOI={10.1002/epa2.1198}, abstractNote={Most studies of policy entrepreneurship seek to understand how entrepreneurs influence the behavior of policy‐makers in the agenda‐setting or decision‐making phases of the policy process. Recent scholarship has sought to understand what role entrepreneurs might play in policy implementation by focusing on their ability to influence bureaucrats' discretion and behavior. However, these studies overlook the potentially critical influence of policy entrepreneurs during the implementation of “opt‐in” policies that require voluntary compliance by individuals to be successful. Here, we consider whether and how a visible policy entrepreneur can impact opt‐in policy implementation, focusing on their credibility—or ability to gain public trust—as a potential driving factor of their influence. Using the empirical context of COVID‐19 vaccination recommendations, we identify Dr. Anthony Fauci as a highly visible policy entrepreneur and assess his influence on individual vaccine intention and uptake. Drawing on data from a novel panel survey of the American public on attitudes about the virus, risk, politics, and vaccination during the first several months of the COVID‐19 vaccine rollout in the United States, we test the relationship between respondent trust in Dr. Fauci and changes in reported intention to vaccinate and vaccination uptake across time. We find that trust in Dr. Fauci is an important predictor for influencing individuals' intention to vaccinate and actual vaccination behavior.}, journal={EUROPEAN POLICY ANALYSIS}, author={Taylor, Kristin and DeLeo, Rob A. and Albright, Elizabeth and Koebele, Elizabeth A. and Birkland, Thomas A. and Crow, Deserai A. and Zhang, Manli and Shanahan, Elizabeth A.}, year={2023}, month={Dec} }
 @article{taylor_deleo_albright_shanahan_li_koebele_anderson crow_birkland_2023, title={Policy entrepreneurs and individuals: Influence and behavior in pandemic response}, volume={5}, ISSN={["1540-6210"]}, DOI={10.1111/puar.13629}, abstractNote={Policy entrepreneurs have traditionally been recognized for their ability to influence policymakers by framing policy problems and pairing them with preferred solutions. Does their influence extend to the public? We examine this question in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. We analyze whether an individual's perception of a visible, national-level policy entrepreneur, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Dr. Anthony Fauci, influences their perceived risk of contracting the virus and their uptake of recommended COVID-19 risk mitigation behaviors. Findings indicate that approval of Dr. Fauci predicts individual risk perceptions and uptake of mask wearing practices, with his influence particularly strong among conservatives. However, Dr. Fauci's influence as a policy entrepreneur waned over time and was moderated by a host of factors such as an individual's worldview, perceptions of policy environment, and media consumption.}, journal={PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REVIEW}, author={Taylor, Kristin and DeLeo, Rob A. and Albright, Elizabeth A. and Shanahan, Elizabeth A. and Li, Meng and Koebele, Elizabeth A. and Anderson Crow, Deserai and Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2023}, month={May} }
 @article{shanahan_deleo_albright_li_koebele_taylor_crow_dickinson_minkowitz_birkland_et al._2023, title={Visual policy narrative messaging improves COVID-19 vaccine uptake}, volume={2}, ISSN={["2752-6542"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad080}, DOI={10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad080}, abstractNote={Abstract In the face of vaccine hesitancy, public health officials are seeking more effective risk communication approaches to increase vaccination rates. We test the influence of visual policy narratives on COVID-19 vaccination behavior through a panel survey experiment conducted in early 2021 (n = 3,900) and then 8 weeks later (n = 2,268). We examine the effects of three visual policy narrative messages that test the narrative mechanism of character selection (yourself, your circle, and your community) and a nonnarrative control on COVID-19 vaccine behavior. Visual risk messages that use narratives positively influence COVID-19 vaccination through serial mediation of affective response to the messages and motivation to get the COVID-19 vaccination. Additionally, character selection matters, as messages focusing on protecting others (i.e. your circle and your community) perform stronger than those of yourself. Political ideology moderated some of the effects, with conservative respondents in the nonnarrative control condition having a higher probability of vaccination in comparison to the protect yourself condition. Taken together, these results suggest that public health officials should use narrative-based visual communication messages that emphasize communal benefits of vaccinations.}, number={4}, journal={PNAS NEXUS}, author={Shanahan, Elizabeth A. and DeLeo, Rob A. and Albright, Elizabeth A. and Li, Meng and Koebele, Elizabeth A. and Taylor, Kristin and Crow, Deserai Anderson and Dickinson, Katherine L. and Minkowitz, Honey and Birkland, Thomas A. and et al.}, editor={Bavel, Jay VanEditor}, year={2023}, month={Apr} }
 @article{grant_rippy_birkland_schenk_rowles_misra_aminpour_kaushal_vikesland_berglund_et al._2022, title={Can Common Pool Resource Theory Catalyze Stakeholder-Driven Solutions to the Freshwater Salinization Syndrome?}, volume={9}, ISSN={["1520-5851"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c01555}, DOI={10.1021/acs.est.2c01555}, abstractNote={Freshwater salinity is rising across many regions of the United States as well as globally, a phenomenon called the freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS). The FSS mobilizes organic carbon, nutrients, heavy metals, and other contaminants sequestered in soils and freshwater sediments, alters the structures and functions of soils, streams, and riparian ecosystems, threatens drinking water supplies, and undermines progress toward many of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. There is an urgent need to leverage the current understanding of salinization’s causes and consequences—in partnership with engineers, social scientists, policymakers, and other stakeholders—into locally tailored approaches for balancing our nation’s salt budget. In this feature, we propose that the FSS can be understood as a common pool resource problem and explore Nobel Laureate Elinor Ostrom’s social-ecological systems framework as an approach for identifying the conditions under which local actors may work collectively to manage the FSS in the absence of top-down regulatory controls. We adopt as a case study rising sodium concentrations in the Occoquan Reservoir, a critical water supply for up to one million residents in Northern Virginia (USA), to illustrate emerging impacts, underlying causes, possible solutions, and critical research needs.}, number={19}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY}, publisher={American Chemical Society (ACS)}, author={Grant, Stanley B. and Rippy, Megan A. and Birkland, Thomas A. and Schenk, Todd and Rowles, Kristin and Misra, Shalini and Aminpour, Payam and Kaushal, Sujay and Vikesland, Peter and Berglund, Emily and et al.}, year={2022}, month={Sep} }
 @article{crow_deleo_albright_taylor_birkland_zhang_koebele_jeschke_shanahan_cage_2022, title={Policy learning and change during crisis: COVID-19 policy responses across six statesPalabras Clave(sic)(sic)(sic)}, ISSN={["1541-1338"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1111/ropr.12511}, DOI={10.1111/ropr.12511}, abstractNote={Abstract Whereas policy change is often characterized as a gradual and incremental process, effective crisis response necessitates that organizations adapt to evolving problems in near real time. Nowhere is this dynamic more evident than in the case of COVID‐19, which forced subnational governments to constantly adjust and recalibrate public health and disease mitigation measures in the face of changing patterns of viral transmission and the emergence of new information. This study assesses (a) the extent to which subnational policies changed over the course of the pandemic; (b) whether these changes are emblematic of policy learning; and (c) the drivers of these changes, namely changing political and public health conditions. Using a novel dataset analyzing each policy's content, including its timing of enactment, substantive focus, stringency, and similar variables, results indicate the pandemic response varied significantly across states. The states examined were responsive to both changing public health and political conditions. This study identifies patterns of preemptive policy learning, which denotes learning in anticipation of an emerging hazard. In doing so, the study provides important insights into the dynamics of policy learning and change during disaster.}, journal={REVIEW OF POLICY RESEARCH}, author={Crow, Deserai A. and DeLeo, Rob A. and Albright, Elizabeth A. and Taylor, Kristin and Birkland, Tom and Zhang, Manli and Koebele, Elizabeth and Jeschke, Nathan and Shanahan, Elizabeth A. and Cage, Caleb}, year={2022}, month={Oct} }
 @article{ba_schwaeble_birkland_2022, title={The United States in Chinese environmental policy narratives: Is there a trump effect?Palabras Clave(sic)(sic)(sic)}, volume={8}, ISSN={["1541-1338"]}, url={https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ropr.12503}, DOI={10.1111/ropr.12503}, abstractNote={Abstract Drawing on insights from studies of environmental politics, the policy process, and the Narrative Policy Framework (NPF), this study examines the Trump administration's influence on how the United States is characterized by Chinese environmental policy scholars. Using an NPF approach and policy narratives on the topic of global environmental governance, our empirical results suggest that the Trump administration has shifted Chinese environmental policy scholars' constructed role of the US but not China's relationship with the US in these narratives. Specifically, there was a widening polarization of the US being portrayed as hero and villain over the sampled time frame (2010–2020) yet the portrayal of the US as an ally remained stable. These portrayals of the US also do not vary across narrators' knowledge and professional backgrounds. Our findings help confirm previous arguments that the Trump Administration's influence on environmental policy and politics in China is more rhetorical than substantive, and indicate that, despite the escalating rivalry between the two countries, Chinese environmental policy scholars continue viewing the US as an ally in global environmental governance. The findings likewise provide insights for rebuilding international climate cooperation and global climate governance leadership.}, journal={REVIEW OF POLICY RESEARCH}, author={Ba, Yuhao and Schwaeble, Kathryn and Birkland, Thomas}, year={2022}, month={Aug} }
 @article{bhide_grant_parker_rippy_godrej_kaushal_prelewicz_saji_curtis_vikesland_et al._2021, title={Addressing the contribution of indirect potable reuse to inland freshwater salinization}, volume={4}, ISSN={["2398-9629"]}, DOI={10.1038/s41893-021-00713-7}, abstractNote={Inland freshwater salinity is rising worldwide, a phenomenon called the freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS). We investigate a potential conflict between managing the FSS and indirect potable reuse, the practice of augmenting water supplies through the addition of highly treated wastewater (reclaimed water) to surface waters and groundwaters. From time-series data collected over 25 years, we quantify the contributions of three salinity sources—a water reclamation facility and two rapidly urbanizing watersheds—to the rising concentration of sodium (a major ion associated with the FSS) in a regionally important drinking-water reservoir in the Mid-Atlantic United States. Sodium mass loading to the reservoir is primarily from watershed runoff during wet weather and reclaimed water during dry weather. Across all timescales evaluated, sodium concentration in the reclaimed water is higher than in outflow from the two watersheds. Sodium in reclaimed water originates from chemicals added during wastewater treatment, industrial and commercial discharges, human excretion and down-drain disposal of drinking water and sodium-rich household products. Thus, numerous opportunities exist to reduce the contribution of indirect potable reuse to sodium pollution at this site, and the FSS more generally. These efforts will require deliberative engagement with a diverse community of watershed stakeholders and careful consideration of the local political, social and environmental context. Freshwater salinization syndrome is an emerging threat to freshwater globally. Here the authors quantify the contribution of indirect potable reuse to sodium pollution and suggest a variety of behavioural and technological interventions to address this growing environmental problem.}, number={8}, journal={NATURE SUSTAINABILITY}, author={Bhide, Shantanu V. and Grant, Stanley B. and Parker, Emily A. and Rippy, Megan A. and Godrej, Adil N. and Kaushal, Sujay and Prelewicz, Greg and Saji, Niffy and Curtis, Shannon and Vikesland, Peter and et al.}, year={2021}, month={Aug}, pages={699–707} }
 @article{birkland_taylor_crow_deleo_2021, title={Governing in a Polarized Era: Federalism and the Response of US State and Federal Governments to the COVID-19 Pandemic}, volume={51}, ISSN={["1747-7107"]}, url={https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjab024}, DOI={10.1093/publius/pjab024}, abstractNote={Abstract How does the state of American federalism explain responses to COVID-19? State-by-state variations to the COVID-19 pandemic illustrate the political dynamics of “kaleidoscopic federalism,” under which there is no single prevailing principle of federalism. In the COVID-19 pandemic, features of kaleidoscopic federalism combined with shortcomings in the public health system under the Trump administration, leading to fragmented responses to the pandemic among the states. Federalism alone does not explain the shortcomings of the United States’ response to the pandemic. Rather, the fragmented response was driven by state partisanship, which shaped state public health interventions and resulted in differences in public health outcomes. This has sobering implications for American federalism because state-level partisan differences yield different and unequal responses to the pandemic.}, number={4}, journal={PUBLIUS-THE JOURNAL OF FEDERALISM}, publisher={Oxford University Press (OUP)}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Taylor, Kristin and Crow, Deserai A. and DeLeo, Rob}, year={2021}, pages={650–672} }
 @article{dubljevic_list_milojevich_ajmeri_bauer_singh_bardaka_birkland_edwards_mayer_et al._2021, title={Toward a rational and ethical sociotechnical system of autonomous vehicles: A novel application of multi-criteria decision analysis}, volume={16}, ISSN={1932-6203}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256224}, DOI={10.1371/journal.pone.0256224}, abstractNote={The impacts of autonomous vehicles (AV) are widely anticipated to be socially, economically, and ethically significant. A reliable assessment of the harms and benefits of their large-scale deployment requires a multi-disciplinary approach. To that end, we employed Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to make such an assessment. We obtained opinions from 19 disciplinary experts to assess the significance of 13 potential harms and eight potential benefits that might arise under four deployments schemes. Specifically, we considered: (1) the status quo, i.e., no AVs are deployed; (2) unfettered assimilation, i.e., no regulatory control would be exercised and commercial entities would “push” the development and deployment; (3) regulated introduction, i.e., regulatory control would be applied and either private individuals or commercial fleet operators could own the AVs; and (4) fleets only, i.e., regulatory control would be applied and only commercial fleet operators could own the AVs. Our results suggest that two of these scenarios, (3) and (4), namely regulated privately-owned introduction or fleet ownership or autonomous vehicles would be less likely to cause harm than either the status quo or the unfettered options.}, number={8}, journal={PLOS ONE}, publisher={Public Library of Science (PLoS)}, author={Dubljevic, Veljko and List, George and Milojevich, Jovan and Ajmeri, Nirav and Bauer, William A. and Singh, Munindar P. and Bardaka, Eleni and Birkland, Thomas A. and Edwards, Charles H. W. and Mayer, Roger C. and et al.}, editor={Yuan, QuanEditor}, year={2021}, month={Aug}, pages={e0256224} }
 @article{roberts_dickinson_koebele_neuberger_banacos_blanch-hartigan_welton-mitchell_birkland_2020, title={Clinicians, cooks, and cashiers: Examining health equity and the COVID-19 risks to essential workers}, volume={36}, ISSN={["1477-0393"]}, DOI={10.1177/0748233720970439}, abstractNote={ In Spring/Summer 2020, most individuals living in the United States experienced several months of social distancing and stay-at-home orders because of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Clinicians, restaurant cooks, cashiers, transit operators, and other essential workers (EWs), however, continued to work outside the home during this time in order to keep others alive and maintain a functioning society. In the United States, EWs are often low-income persons of color who are more likely to face socioeconomic vulnerabilities, systemic racism, and health inequities. To assess the various impacts of COVID-19 on EWs, an online survey was distributed to a representative sample of individuals residing in six states during May/June 2020. The sample included 990 individuals who identified as EWs and 736 nonessential workers (NWs). We assessed differences between EW and NW respondents according to three categories related to health equity and social determinants of health: (1) demographics (e.g. race/ethnicity); (2) COVID-19 exposure risk pathways (e.g. ability to social distance); and (3) COVID-19 risk perceptions (e.g. perceived risk of contracting COVID-19). EWs were more likely to be Black or Hispanic than NWs and also had lower incomes and education levels on average. Unsurprisingly, EWs were substantially more likely to report working outside the home and less likely to report social distancing and wearing masks indoors as compared to NWs. EWs also perceived a slightly greater risk of contracting COVID-19. These findings, which we discuss in the context of persistent structural inequalities, systemic racism, and health inequities within the United States, highlight ways in which COVID-19 exacerbates existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities faced by EWs. }, number={9}, journal={TOXICOLOGY AND INDUSTRIAL HEALTH}, author={Roberts, Jennifer D. and Dickinson, Katherine L. and Koebele, Elizabeth and Neuberger, Lindsay and Banacos, Natalie and Blanch-Hartigan, Danielle and Welton-Mitchell, Courtney and Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2020}, month={Sep}, pages={689–702} }
 @misc{lewis_schwaeble_birkland_2020, title={Crisis Agenda-Setting and Aviation Security Policy After the September 11 Attacks}, ISBN={9780190228637}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1595}, DOI={10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1595}, abstractNote={The September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States were a focusing event that greatly increased attention to particularly large acts of terrorism as a threat to the United States and to particular interests. One of these interests is the aviation industry. The September 11 attacks exploited features of the aviation industry that made it prone to attack and that made an attack on this industry particularly vivid and attention-grabbing.}, journal={Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics}, publisher={Oxford University Press}, author={Lewis, Zachary R. and Schwaeble, Kathryn L. and Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2020}, month={Jun} }
 @misc{birkland_schwaeble_2019, title={Agenda Setting and the Policy Process: Focusing Events}, ISBN={9780190228637}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.165}, DOI={10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.165}, abstractNote={Agenda setting is a crucial aspect of the public policy process. Sudden, rare, and harmful events, known as focusing events, can be important influences on the policy process. Such events can reveal current and potential future harms, mobilize people and groups to address the policy failures that may be revealed by such events, and open the “window of opportunity” for intensive policy discussion and potential policy change. But focusing events operate differently at different times and in different policy domains. Although the idea of focusing events is firmly rooted in Kingdon’s “streams approach” to the policy process, focusing events are an important element of most contemporary theories of the policy process. But not every event works as a focusing event. The process by which a focusing event can yield policy change is complex and involves attention to the problems revealed by the event as well as evidence of learning from the event on the part of policymakers. Although focusing events are important, in many ways the concept remains underdeveloped, with few researchers seeking to understand the dynamics of these important events.}, note={ISBN: 9780190228637 Library Catalog: oxfordre.com}, journal={Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics}, publisher={Oxford University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Schwaeble, Kathryn L.}, year={2019}, month={Jun} }
 @book{birkland_2019, place={New York}, edition={Fourth Edition}, title={An introduction to the policy process: theories, concepts, and models of public policy making}, publisher={Routledge}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2019} }
 @article{sharkey_birkland_grabowski_lowe_wallace_2019, title={Breaking the Ice: ISE to Play Key Role in Shaping Arctic’s Future}, volume={51}, number={11}, journal={ISE Magazine}, author={Sharkey, Thomas C. and Birkland, Thomas and Grabowski, Martha and Lowe, Marie and Wallace, William}, year={2019}, month={Nov}, pages={28–33} }
 @misc{birkland_2019, title={Natural Hazards Governance: An Overview of the Field}, ISBN={9780199389407}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.358}, DOI={10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.358}, abstractNote={The field of natural hazards governance has changed substantially since the 1970s as the breadth and severity of natural hazards have grown. These changes have been driven by greater social scientific knowledge around natural hazards and disasters, and by changes in structure of natural hazards governance. The governance of issues relating to natural hazards is challenging because of the considerable complexity inherent in preparing for, responding to, mitigating, or recovering from disasters.}, journal={Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science}, publisher={Oxford University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2019}, month={Nov} }
 @inbook{taylor_birkland_2019, title={The Politics and Governance of Mitigation}, ISBN={9781315714462}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315714462-5}, DOI={10.4324/9781315714462-5}, booktitle={The Routledge Handbook of Urban Disaster Resilience}, publisher={Routledge}, author={Taylor, Kristin and Birkland, Thomas}, year={2019}, month={Jul}, pages={76–91} }
 @article{pyles_svistova_ahn_birkland_2017, title={Citizen participation in disaster recovery projects and programmes in rural communities: a comparison of the Haiti earthquake and Hurricane Katrina}, volume={42}, ISSN={0361-3666}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/disa.12260}, DOI={10.1111/disa.12260}, abstractNote={This study investigates predictors of local participation in recovery projects and programmes following Hurricane Katrina in the United States in 2005 and the earthquake in Haiti in 2010. Using two sets of survey data, it examines whether disaster impacts and social capital (social trust and civic engagement) are associated with disaster recovery participation and compares predictors of such engagement in the two locations. Multivariate logistic regression results reveal that physical injuries, limited community mobility, and government trust increase recovery participation in Haiti (n=278), whereas emotional distress and homeownership decrease it. On the Gulf Coast of the US (n=259), physical injuries and higher civic engagement augment recovery participation, while homeownership and age reduce it. The confounding factors of national contexts and post‐disaster time frames might explain the differences in the results. The discussion addresses the relation between country‐specific vulnerability and recovery participation and suggests implications for policy and practice to improve local citizens’ capabilities to participate in sustainable recovery processes.}, number={3}, journal={Disasters}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Pyles, Loretta and Svistova, Juliana and Ahn, Suran and Birkland, Tom}, year={2017}, month={Oct}, pages={498–518} }
 @inbook{birkland_warnement_2017, title={Focusing Events, Risk, and Regulation}, ISBN={9781316492635}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781316492635.005}, DOI={10.1017/9781316492635.005}, abstractNote={A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.}, booktitle={Policy Shock}, publisher={Cambridge University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Warnement, Megan K.}, editor={Balleisen, Edward J. and Bennear, Lori S. and Krawiec, Kimberly D. and Wiener, Jonathan B.Editors}, year={2017}, month={Oct}, pages={107–128} }
 @misc{birkland_2016, title={Attention and natural disasters}, ISBN={9781784715922}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781784715922.00032}, DOI={10.4337/9781784715922.00032}, journal={Handbook of Public Policy Agenda Setting}, publisher={Edward Elgar Publishing}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2016}, month={Oct}, pages={389–414} }
 @article{birkland_2016, title={Conceptualizing resilience}, volume={4}, ISSN={2183-2463}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/pag.v4i4.823}, DOI={10.17645/pag.v4i4.823}, abstractNote={This commentary provides an overview of the idea of resilience, and acknowledges the challenges of defining and applying the idea in practice. The article summarizes a way of looking at resilience called a “resilience delta”, that takes into account both the shock done to a community by a disaster and the capacity of that community to rebound from that shock to return to its prior functionality. I show how different features of the community can create resilience, and consider how the developed and developing world addresses resilience. I also consider the role of focusing events in gaining attention to events and promoting change. I note that, while focusing events are considered by many in the disaster studies field to be major drivers of policy change in the United States disaster policy, most disasters have little effect on the overall doctrine of shared responsibilities between the national and subnational governments.}, number={4}, journal={Politics and Governance}, publisher={Cogitatio}, author={Birkland, T. A.}, year={2016}, pages={117–120} }
 @book{birkland_2016, title={Policy Process Theory and Natural Hazards}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.75}, DOI={10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.75}, abstractNote={Natural disasters pose important problems for societies and governments. Governments are charged with making policies to protect public safety. Large disasters, then, can reveal problems in government policies designed to protect the public from the effects of such disasters. Large disasters can serve as focusing events, a term used to describe large, sudden, rare, and harmful events that gain a lot of attention from the public and from policy makers. Such disasters highlight problems and, as the public policy literature suggests, open windows of opportunity for policy change. However, as a review of United States disaster policy from 1950 through 2015 shows, change in disaster policy is often, but not always, driven by major disasters that act as focusing events. But the accumulation of experience from such disasters can lead to learning, which can be useful if later, even more damaging and attention-grabbing events arise.}, journal={Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science}, publisher={Oxford University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2016}, month={Nov} }
 @book{birkland_2015, place={New York}, edition={4th}, title={An Introduction to the Policy Process: Theories, Concepts, and Models of Public Policy Making}, publisher={Routledge}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2015} }
 @inbook{birkland_warnement_2015, place={New York}, edition={Fourth}, title={Critical Infrastructure in Extreme Events}, booktitle={Controversies in Science and Technology}, publisher={Oxford University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Warnement, Megan}, editor={Kleinman, Daniel Lee and Cloud-Hansen, Karen A. and Handlesman, JoEditors}, year={2015}, pages={Chapter 3} }
 @inbook{birkland_deyoung_2015, title={Focusing events and policy windows}, ISBN={9780203097571 9781136223259 9780415782456}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203097571.ch14}, DOI={10.4324/9780203097571.ch14}, booktitle={Routledge Handbook of Public Policy}, publisher={Routledge}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and DeYoung, Sarah E.}, year={2015}, month={Feb} }
 @inbook{warnement_birkland_2015, place={Brussels}, title={Organizational and Policy Learning: Post Crisis Assessments}, booktitle={Organizing after Crisis: The Challenge of Learning}, publisher={Peter Lang}, author={Warnement, Megan K. and Birkland, Thomas A.}, editor={Schiffino, Nathalie and Taskin, Laurent and Donis, Céline and Raone, JulienEditors}, year={2015}, pages={235–256} }
 @article{birkland_kretzer_2015, title={Pathways of Power: The Dynamics of National Policymaking}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1552-3357"]}, DOI={10.1177/0275074015573281}, number={5}, journal={AMERICAN REVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Kretzer, William T.}, year={2015}, month={Sep}, pages={627–629} }
 @article{birkland_warnement_2014, title={Focusing Events in Disasters and Development}, ISBN={["978-3-319-04467-5"]}, DOI={10.1007/978-3-319-04468-2_3}, journal={DISASTER AND DEVELOPMENT: EXAMINING GLOBAL ISSUES AND CASES}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Warnement, Megan K.}, year={2014}, pages={39–60} }
 @misc{birkland_2013, title={Catastrophic politics: How extraordinary events redefine perceptions of government}, volume={77}, number={4}, journal={Public Opinion Quarterly}, author={Birkland, T. A.}, year={2013}, pages={1032–1034} }
 @inbook{birkland_2013, place={New Orleans}, title={Disasters, Focusing Events, and Sociolegal Studies}, booktitle={Disaster and Sociolegal Studies}, publisher={Quid Pro Books}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, editor={Sterrett, SusanEditor}, year={2013} }
 @article{smith_birkland_2012, title={Building a Theory of Recovery: Institutional Dimensions}, volume={30}, number={2}, journal={International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters}, author={Smith, Gavin and Birkland, Thomas}, year={2012}, pages={147–170} }
 @article{birkland_deyoungy_2011, title={Emergency Response, Doctrinal Confusion, and Federalism in the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill}, volume={41}, ISSN={["1747-7107"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-79960132055&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1093/publius/pjr011}, abstractNote={The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was accompanied by intergovernmental blame casting and criticisms similar to that of Hurricane Katrina. The federal response was often viewed as slow, state officials were unsure of their role, and local officials complained that they were not adequately consulted. However, natural and oil pollution disasters have relief and regulatory regimes based on doctrines different from those governing natural disasters. This article discusses those doctrines one of which is characterized by "shared power"; the other reflects greater federal direction. The balance of national and state powers inherent in federalism can also lead to confusion and delay in disaster response, particularly when there are overlapping laws and programs and unrealistic state and local expectations. Copyright 2011, Oxford University Press.}, number={3}, journal={PUBLIUS-THE JOURNAL OF FEDERALISM}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and DeYoungy, Sarah E.}, year={2011}, pages={471–493} }
 @misc{birkland_2011, title={Learning from catastrophes: Strategies for reaction and response}, volume={89}, number={3}, journal={Public Administration}, author={Birkland, T. A.}, year={2011}, pages={1201–494} }
 @inbook{birkland_2010, place={Pittsburgh}, title={Federal Disaster Policy Learning, Priorities, and Prospects for Resilience}, booktitle={Designing Resilience: Preparing for Extreme Events}, publisher={University of Pittsburgh Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, editor={Boin, Arjen and Comfort, Louise and Demchak, ChrisEditors}, year={2010} }
 @article{comfort_birkland_cigler_nance_2010, title={Retrospectives and Prospectives on Hurricane Katrina: Five Years and Counting}, volume={70}, ISSN={["1540-6210"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-77956153440&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02194.x}, abstractNote={ New Orleans’ recovery from the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 reflects a long, complex, contentious process that still is not complete. In this article, the authors explore the key factors that have supported and hindered recovery so far. Initial conditions within the city, the web of policy demands, as well as recent changes in law and procedures for the region are explored using a new model that may be applicable to other severe disasters. Any recovery, the authors conclude, must be anchored within a local context, but only with necessary administrative backing from the wider region and society. Recovery from disaster offers a rare opportunity to rebuild damaged communities into more resilient ones when energy and investment are immediately channeled into the stricken region and focused in a constructive redesign that acknowledges environmental risk. The recovery process then shifts to mitigation and reduction of risk. Hence, cities will be better prepared for the next extreme event, which will surely come. }, number={5}, journal={PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REVIEW}, author={Comfort, Louise K. and Birkland, Thomas A. and Cigler, Beverly A. and Nance, Earthea}, year={2010}, pages={669–678} }
 @misc{birkland_2010, title={Review of Robert R M. Verchick, Facing Catastrophe: Environmental Action for a Post-Katrina World }, url={http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=30991}, journal={H-Net Reviews}, publisher={H-Environment}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2010}, month={Nov} }
 @article{birkland_2009, title={Advancing FEMA in the Post-9/11 World}, volume={34}, number={2}, journal={Natural Hazards Observer}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2009}, pages={18–20} }
 @article{suter_birkland_larter_2009, title={Disaster Research and Social Network Analysis: Examples of the Scientific Understanding of Human Dynamics at the National Science Foundation}, volume={28}, ISSN={["0167-5923"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-60649104607&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1007/s11113-008-9109-2}, abstractNote={How can knowledge about human behavior be accumulated effectively? How does the funding agency best assure that scientific research is effectively organized? This paper was stimulated by a meeting of nine researchers who received small grants from NSF to conduct empirical analysis of individuals affected by the hurricane disasters (Katrina and Rita) of 2005. Two of the authors are NSF program directors (one is a former director) who will discuss the philosophy and intentions of funding programs on social dynamics of disasters following the 2005 hurricanes. We discuss how NSF funding supported studies of these disasters and what was expected from the funded projects. And we will summarize the type of projects, the kinds of new scientific knowledge that has been gained, and describe what problems remain to be addressed. This paper was written by researchers who were program directors of the National Science Foundation during 2006. Larry Suter is currently a program director in the Division of Research, Evaluation and Communication, of the Education and Human Resources Directorate. Thomas Birkland was a program director for the Infrastucture Management and Hazards Response Program in the Division for Civil, Mechanical, and Manufacturing Innovation in the Engineering Directorate, and is now the Director of}, number={1}, journal={POPULATION RESEARCH AND POLICY REVIEW}, author={Suter, Larry and Birkland, Thomas and Larter, Raima}, year={2009}, month={Feb}, pages={1–10} }
 @article{suter_birkland_later_2009, title={Disaster Research and Social Network Analysis: Examples of the Scientific Understanding of Human Dynamics at the National Science Foundation}, volume={27}, number={6}, journal={Population Research and Policy Review}, author={Suter, Larry and Birkland, Thomas A. and Later, Raima}, year={2009}, pages={1–10} }
 @article{birkland_2009, title={Disasters, Catastrophes, and Policy Failure in the Homeland Security Era}, volume={26}, ISSN={["1541-132X"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-67649240021&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1541-1338.2009.00393.x}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={4}, journal={REVIEW OF POLICY RESEARCH}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2009}, month={Jul}, pages={423–438} }
 @article{birkland_2009, title={Disasters, lessons learned, and fantasy documents}, volume={17}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-69149107751&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1468-5973.2009.00575.x}, abstractNote={This article develops a general theory of why post‐disaster ‘lessons learned’ documents are often ‘fantasy documents’. The article describes the political and organizational barriers to effective learning from disasters, and builds on general theory building on learning from extreme events to explain this phenomenon. Fantasy documents are not generally about the ‘real’ causes and solutions to disasters; rather, they are generated to prove that some authoritative actor has ‘done something’ about a disaster. Because it is difficult to test whether learning happened after an extreme event, these post‐disaster documents are generally ignored after they are published.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2009}, pages={146–156} }
 @article{birkland_2009, title={Economics Nobel Sends a Message}, url={http://www.charlotteobserver.com/viewpoint/story/999836.html}, journal={Charlotte Observer}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2009}, month={Oct} }
 @inbook{birkland_2009, place={Amherst}, title={Emergency Management and the Courts in the Wake of Hurricane Katrina}, booktitle={Catastrophe: Law, Politics, and the Humanitarian Impulse}, publisher={University of Massachusetts Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, editor={Sarat, Austin and Lezaun, JavierEditors}, year={2009} }
 @article{birkland_2009, place={Wilmington, NC}, title={FEMA Again a Victim of Politics}, url={http://www.starnewsonline.com/article/20090508/ARTICLES/905084006?Title=Thomas-Birkland-FEMA-again-a-victim-of-politics.}, journal={Wilmington Star-News}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2009}, month={May} }
 @article{birkland_lawrence_2009, title={Media Framing and Policy Change After Columbine}, volume={52}, ISSN={["0002-7642"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-65449156104&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1177/0002764209332555}, abstractNote={ The 1999 Columbine school shooting incident in Colorado gained far more media attention across a broader range of issues than any school violence episode before or since. One might expect that Columbine would have had an influence on public opinion, public policy, and scholarship commensurate with the attention it gained. We find that the event did contribute in a limited but interesting way to scholarship on media framing. But the effect of Columbine on public opinion and the nature and substance of public policy was limited. Attention to school shootings peaked with Columbine, and the attention surrounding that event mostly spurred more rapid implementation of existing policies and tools that were already available to schools. In this article, the authors review first the media and public opinion research generated by Columbine; they then review the public policy research referencing Columbine and evaluate the “lessons” scholars have drawn from that event. }, number={10}, journal={AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Lawrence, Regina G.}, year={2009}, month={Jun}, pages={1405–1425} }
 @article{birkland_2009, place={Raleigh, NC}, title={Still Too Much Risk in the Beach Plan}, url={http://www.newsobserver.com/opinion/columnists_blogs/story/60531.html.}, journal={News and Observer}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2009}, month={Sep} }
 @inbook{birkland_waterman_2009, place={Burlington, VT}, title={The Politics and Policy Challenges of Disaster Resilience}, volume={2: Preparation and Restoration}, booktitle={Resilience engineering perspectives}, publisher={Ashgate}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Waterman, Sarah}, editor={Nemeth, C.P. and Hollnagel, E. and Dekker, S.Editors}, year={2009} }
 @article{birkland_2008, title={Disaster policy and politics: Emergency management and homeland security}, volume={5}, DOI={10.2202/1547-7355.1470}, abstractNote={Article Review of Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security was published on August 19, 2008 in the journal Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management (volume 5, issue 1).}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2008} }
 @article{horton_bird_birkland_cowie_eong_hawkes_khoon_law_macgregor_shau-hwai_et al._2008, title={Environmental and socioeconomic dynamics of the Indian Ocean tsunami in Penang, Malaysia}, volume={29}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-56349164264&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1467-9493.2008.00342.x}, abstractNote={This paper addresses some of the environmental and socioeconomic dimensions of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on Penang, Malaysia. We aim to offer wide access to unique and perishable data, while at the same time providing insight to ongoing debates about hazards, vulnerability and social capital. Our social survey examines some of the dynamics that shaped the tsunami impact, response and recovery process. While in terms of lives lost Penang may not conform to arguments surrounding vulnerable environments, the recovery process is more marked by social disparities in terms of the ability to access resources. Our physical survey records local topography, flow depth and flow direction, and charts the differential impact of the tsunami. Yet measuring hazards is not a straightforward process, and relies on reflexive methodologies and eyewitness accounts.}, number={3}, journal={Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography}, author={Horton, B. and Bird, M. and Birkland, T. and Cowie, S. and Eong, O.J. and Hawkes, A. and Khoon, G.W. and Law, L. and Macgregor, C. and Shau-hwai, A.T. and et al.}, year={2008}, pages={307–324} }
 @article{birkland_waterman_2008, title={Is federalism the reason for policy failure in Hurricane Katrina?}, volume={38}, ISSN={["0048-5950"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-58849091799&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1093/publius/pjn020}, abstractNote={Governmental responses to Hurricane Katrina are generally cited as policy failures. Media and popular analyses focus on the federal government's policy failures in hazard preparedness, response, and recovery. Meanwhile, disaster experts realize that disaster response is a shared intergovernmental responsibility. We examine the federal nature of natural disaster policy in the US to consider whether federalism, or other factors, had the greatest influence on the failures in Katrina. We find that some policy failures are related to policy design considerations based in federalism, but that the national focus on "homeland security" and the concomitant reduction in attention to natural hazards and disasters, are equally, if not more complicit, in the erosion of government disaster management capacity that was revealed in Hurricane Katrina. Copyright 2008, Oxford University Press.}, number={4}, journal={PUBLIUS-THE JOURNAL OF FEDERALISM}, author={Birkland, Thomas and Waterman, Sarah}, year={2008}, pages={692–714} }
 @article{birkland_schneider_2007, title={Emergency management in the courts: Trends after September 11 and Hurricane Katrina}, volume={28}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-34147172702&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, number={1}, journal={Justice System Journal}, author={Birkland, T.A. and Schneider, C.A.}, year={2007}, pages={20–35} }
 @book{schaefer_birkland_2007, place={Washington, D.C}, title={Encyclopedia of media and politics}, note={OCLC: ocm71778999}, publisher={CQ Press}, year={2007} }
 @article{birkland_2007, title={Review of Meeting the Challenge of 9/11: Blueprints for More Effective Government}, volume={4}, ISSN={1547-7355}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1547-7355.1347}, DOI={10.2202/1547-7355.1347}, abstractNote={Book Review of Meeting the Challenge of 9/11: Blueprints for More Effective Government, by Thomas H. Stanton (2006).}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management}, publisher={Walter de Gruyter GmbH}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2007}, month={Jan} }
 @inproceedings{little_birkland_wallace_herabat_2007, title={Socio-technological systems integration to support Tsunami warning and evacuation}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-39749136114&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1109/HICSS.2007.492}, abstractNote={On December 26, 2004, countries in the Indian Ocean basin were struck by a tsunami generated by a large magnitude earthquake just south of the western tip of Sumatra. Observations made during a post-tsunami visit to coastal Thailand suggest that the value of the proposed emergency warning system (EWS) for the Indian Ocean would be greatly enhanced if it was augmented by an on-shore cyber-based warning and evacuation system. Such a system would greatly increase safety with minimal disruption to the normal activities involved in tourism and other coastal industries. An integrated, cyber-based system to inform and assist the tsunami detection, warning, and evacuation process would, in essence, expand time and shorten distances. This paper describes the elements of such a cyber-infrastructure system, how system triggers could be calibrated using decision principles from judgment theory, and how the system could be tested through simulations employing agent-based models}, booktitle={Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences}, author={Little, R.G. and Birkland, T.A. and Wallace, W.A. and Herabat, P.}, year={2007} }
 @article{birkland_2007, title={The Storm}, volume={4}, DOI={10.2202/1547-7355.1350}, abstractNote={A review of The Storm by Ivor van Heerden and Mike Bryan. New York, Viking, 2006. 308 pp., index. 23 illustrations.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2007} }
 @inbook{birkland_2006, place={New York}, title={Agenda Setting}, booktitle={ Handbook of Public Policy Analysis}, publisher={Taylor and Francis}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, editor={Fischer, Frank and Miller, Gerald and Sidney, Mara S.Editors}, year={2006} }
 @book{schaefer_birkland_2006, place={Washington}, title={Encyclopedia of Media and Politics}, publisher={CQ Press}, year={2006} }
 @inbook{birkland_madden_mapes_roe_stein_2006, place={Albany}, edition={4th}, title={Environmental Policy in New York State}, booktitle={Chapter in Governing New York State}, publisher={State University of New York Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Madden, Sean and Mapes, Jeffrey and Roe, Katie and Stein, Amanda}, editor={Stonecash, Jeffrey and Pecorella, RobertEditors}, year={2006} }
 @inproceedings{birkland_2006, title={Learning from disaster: The process and politics of learning from earthquakes and other extreme events}, volume={15}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84865856107&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, booktitle={8th US National Conference on Earthquake Engineering 2006}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2006}, pages={8752–8761} }
 @book{lessons of disaster: policy change after catastrophic events_2006, journal={Georgetown University Press}, year={2006} }
 @book{birkland_2006, place={Washington}, title={Lessons of Disaster: Policy Change after Catastrophic Events}, publisher={Georgetown University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2006} }
 @article{birkland_herabat_little_wallace_2006, title={The impact of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on tourism in Thailand}, volume={22}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-77953901307&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1193/1.2207471}, abstractNote={ The 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami appears to have reduced tourist visits to southern Thailand and particularly to the provinces of Phuket and Phang Nga. In Thailand, a much higher proportion of the tsunami victims were tourists than in other affected nations. Also, the tourism industry, which is a major source of foreign exchange, is very sensitive to the perception of risk created by disasters like this tsunami. Although revenues may remain depressed for some time, it is likely that tourism will rebound in this region because of the attractiveness of the physical amenity and the value it offers for European tourists. Damage to the physical infrastructure did not serve as a substantial impediment to response and recovery. Information and warning systems, together with buildings that afford vertical evacuation, will protect lives and reduce perceived risk. }, number={SUPPL. 3}, journal={Earthquake Spectra}, author={Birkland, T.A. and Herabat, P. and Little, R.G. and Wallace, W.A.}, year={2006} }
 @article{birkland_2005, title={Review of Mark Considine, Making Public Policy: Institutions, Actors, Strategies}, volume={7}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2005}, pages={371–372} }
 @article{birkland_2004, title={"The world changed today": Agenda-setting and policy change in the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks}, volume={21}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-1942530663&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.1541-1338.2004.00068.x}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={2}, journal={Review of Policy Research}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2004}, pages={179–200} }
 @book{birkland_2004, title={Emergency Planning and the Judiciary: Lessons from September 11}, url={www.courtinnovation.org}, institution={Center for Court Innovation}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2004} }
 @article{birkland_2004, title={Environmental Successes and Continued Challenges in the Hudson Valley}, volume={8}, number={2}, journal={Albany Law Environmental Outlook}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2004}, pages={187–211} }
 @article{birkland_2004, title={Everything Has Changed—Or Has It? Policy Change in the Months after September 11}, volume={21}, number={2}, journal={Review of Policy Research}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2004}, pages={177–198} }
 @article{lawrence_birkland_2004, title={Guns, hollywood, and school safety: Defining the school-shooting problem across public arenas}, volume={85}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-11844259402&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00271.x}, abstractNote={Objective.  Research in agenda setting has demonstrated that dramatic news events can drive particular issues to the top of the media and governmental agendas. The objective of this study is to analyze how different aspects of an event‐driven problem compete for attention in those arenas.}, number={5 SPEC. ISS.}, journal={Social Science Quarterly}, author={Lawrence, R.G. and Birkland, T.A.}, year={2004}, pages={1193–1207} }
 @book{dawes_birkland_tayi_schneider_2004, place={Albany, NY}, title={Information, Technology and Coordination: Lessons from the World Trade Center Response}, institution={Center for Technology in Government, University at Albany, SUNY}, author={Dawes, Sharon S. and Birkland, Thomas A. and Tayi, Giri Kumar and Schneider, Carrie A.}, year={2004}, month={Jun} }
 @article{dawes_birkland_tayi_schneider_2004, title={Information, Technology, and Coordination: Lessons from the World Trade Center Response}, publisher={Center for Technology in Government, SUNY Albany}, author={Dawes, Sharon S. and Birkland, Thomas and Tayi, Giri Kumar and Schneider, Carrie A.}, year={2004}, month={Jun} }
 @article{birkland_2004, title={Learning and policy improvement after disaster: The case of aviation security}, volume={48}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-8144221053&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1177/0002764204268990}, abstractNote={ This article considers whether policy makers in the aviation security field have learned from actual or apparent aviation security breaches in the late 1980s through 2001. The author finds that the loss of Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988 and of TWA Flight 800 in 1996 did lead to greater policy-making attention to a relatively narrow range of issues raised by these events. The author also finds that the September 11 terrorist attacks led to a comprehensive search for improved policy tools to prevent a recurrence of the attacks. The author argues that this post-September 11 search would not have been possible without the debates on aviation safety that accompanied the earlier events. }, number={3}, journal={American Behavioral Scientist}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2004}, pages={341–364} }
 @article{birkland_2004, title={Risk, disaster, and policy in the 21st century: Introduction}, volume={48}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-8144223545&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1177/0002764204268997}, abstractNote={The latter half of the 20th century has posed a number of paradoxes for developed societies. Increased economic and physical well-being have created expectations of long, healthy, productive lives free of great risk to lives or property. The public—or at least the public as interpreted by elected officials—has consistently demanded that government take steps to mitigate or respond to hazards ranging from the catastrophic, such as terrorism, to the mainly inconvenient, such as snowstorms or nuisance flooding. Paradoxically, most public attention is paid to postdisaster actions; demands are placed on government to effectively respond to or clean up after these events (O’Brien, 1991). Demand for proactive steps to mitigate hazards is quite low, and politicians pay little attention to it (Rossi, Wright, & Weber-Burdin, 1982) even as professionals in disaster-related fields press for change without widespread public support (May, 1990). Yet the annual economic toll from natural disasters continues to mount, with little apparent political cost to decision makers who could take some actions to reduce the toll done by natural disasters (Burby, 1998; O’Brien, 1991). This situation becomes somewhat less puzzling when we consider the divergent trends in disaster fatalities and property damage in the latter half of the 20th century. The sheer number of people in developed nations (we focus primarily on the United States) killed or injured in natural hazards has substantially decreased, a result of improved building practices, better warning systems, improved search and rescue capacities, and better emergency medical care. At the same time, the rate of development in hazardous areas has accelerated, thereby exposing more property to hazard; these hazards are often willingly accepted by those who value the very things about the site—ocean access, fertile land, or sweeping views—that make the site both very desirable and hazardous. Thus, people are more willing to voluntarily assume known risks than they are to assume risks that are not obvious to the property owner (Morgan, 1993). This raises the question of whether and to what extent individuals should assume more responsibility for protecting themselves and their property from hazards. This is particularly troublesome when individuals’ and communities’ risk}, number={3}, journal={American Behavioral Scientist}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2004}, pages={275–280} }
 @book{birkland_krausnick_2003, title={Information Needs for Sustainable Development}, journal={Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (ELOSS)}, institution={The United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and EOLSS Publishers}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Krausnick, Jennifer}, year={2003} }
 @article{birkland_2003, place={Albany, NY}, title={Jokes Aside, The Case for Being Prepared}, journal={Times Union (Albany, NY)}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2003}, month={Feb} }
 @book{rubin_cumming_renda-tanali_birkland_2003, place={Boulder, Colorado}, title={Major Terrorism Events and Their U.S. Outcomes (1988-2001)}, number={107107}, institution={Natural Hazards Research Applications and Information Center}, author={Rubin, Clare B. and Cumming, William R. and Renda-Tanali, Irmak and Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2003} }
 @article{birkland_burby_conrad_cortner_michener_2003, title={River ecology and flood hazard mitigation}, volume={4}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-9144252812&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2003)4:1(46)}, abstractNote={Flooding remains the most common and one of the most costly categories of natural hazards in the United States. Historically, the United States has relied on structural mitigation, insurance, and disaster relief to mitigate the harm done by floods. However, experience has shown that structural mitigation and related policies can fail to protect lives and property while also contributing to the degradation of the riverine environment. We review flood hazard mitigation policy, describe some of the environmental damage associated with current policies, and review current policy proposals to outline ways to mitigate the flood hazard without promoting catastrophic losses and environmental damage.}, number={1}, journal={Natural Hazards Review}, author={Birkland, T.A. and Burby, R.J. and Conrad, D. and Cortner, H. and Michener, W.K.}, year={2003}, pages={46–54} }
 @article{birkland_2002, place={Long Island}, title={New York's Beasts of Burden: Counties are creatures of the state, so mandates come with the turf}, journal={Newsday (Long Island)}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2002}, month={Sep} }
 @article{fredericks_carman_birkland_2002, title={Program evaluation in a challenging authorizing environment: Intergovernmental and interorganizational factors}, volume={2002}, ISSN={1097-6736 1534-875X}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ev.55}, DOI={10.1002/ev.55}, abstractNote={Abstract}, number={95}, journal={New Directions for Evaluation}, publisher={Wiley}, author={Fredericks, Kimberly A. and Carman, Joanne G. and Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2002}, pages={5–22} }
 @article{birkland_lawrence_2002, title={The Social and Political Meaning of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill}, volume={7}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0036592092&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1016/S1353-2561(02)00049-X}, abstractNote={In this paper we argue that the Exxon Valdez oil spill gained so much attention because of its setting in Alaska. Alaska symbolizes for many Americans the wilderness or frontier that has long been part of American thought. At the same time, American national development has largely depended on the discovery and use of the nation’s abundant natural resources. The setting of the Valdez spill in the seemingly pristine waters of Prince William Sound brought the tension between our national identification with wilderness and our national need for further natural resource exploitation into sharp focus. In the aftermath of the spill, a legislative deadlock was passed and the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was passed. The Valdez accident had longer-term consequences as well, most prominent of which is related to the ongoing debate over whether to open up the coastal plain in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to further development.}, number={1-2}, journal={Spill Science and Technology Bulletin}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Lawrence, Regina}, year={2002}, pages={3–4} }
 @article{birkland_2001, title={Expertise and policy change after "focusing events"}, volume={8}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-29244442752&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1080/10630730120113840}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Urban Technology}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2001}, pages={121–124} }
 @article{birkland_2001, place={Albany, NY}, title={Our Political System Will Keep Doing its Job}, journal={Times Union (Albany, NY)}, publisher={Times Union}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2001}, month={Sep} }
 @misc{birkland_2001, title={Review of Rutherford Platt, Disasters and Democracy}, journal={Environmental Hazards}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2001} }
 @article{birkland_2001, title={Scientists and coastal hazards: Opportunities for participation and policy change}, volume={8}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-34250198145&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, number={1}, journal={Environmental Geosciences}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={2001}, pages={61–67} }
 @inbook{birkland_lawrence_2001, place={New York}, title={The Exxon Valdez and Alaska in the American Imagination}, booktitle={American Disasters}, publisher={New York University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A. and Lawrence, Regina G.}, editor={Biel, StevenEditor}, year={2001} }
 @article{birkland_nath_2000, title={Business and political dimensions in disaster management}, volume={20}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0034457730&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1017/S0143814X00000854}, abstractNote={A considerable and growing body of crisis management literature seeks to help business managers address disasters. 
Notwithstanding, the business literature on crisis management fails fully to understand the policy and political aspects 
of business disasters, and concentrates on prescriptive, managerial issues that show disregard and sometimes disdain 
for plural democracy. We illustrate our argument with a review of the existing crisis management literature, and three 
case studies: the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the Jack in the Box E. Coli outbreak, and the crash of ValuJet flight 592. We 
find that the primary gap in the crisis management literature is its failure to understand the motivations of countervailing 
interest groups and the facts that mobilize them to take action. We argue that the lessons derived from these cases are 
equally applicable to North American, European and Asian business crises.}, number={3}, journal={Journal of Public Policy}, author={Birkland, T.A. and Nath, R.}, year={2000}, pages={275–303} }
 @article{birkland_2000, edition={21}, title={Earthquakes and Weather: Lessons for Policy and Science}, journal={Weatherzone}, publisher={University Corporation for Atmospheric Research}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={2000}, month={Apr} }
 @article{birkland_1998, volume={16}, number={2}, journal={International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1998}, pages={221–222} }
 @article{birkland_1998, title={Disasters and the Courts' Agenda}, volume={37}, number={4}, journal={Judges’ Journal}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1998}, pages={7–11} }
 @article{birkland_1998, title={Environmental taxes: China's bold initiative}, volume={40}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0345451015&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, number={7}, journal={Environment}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={1998} }
 @article{birkland_1998, title={Focusing Events, Mobilization, and Agenda Setting}, volume={18}, ISSN={0143-814X}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x98000038}, DOI={10.1017/S0143814X98000038}, abstractNote={The policy literature often mentions the agenda-setting influence of focusing events, but few policy studies systematically examine the dynamics of these events. This article closes this gap by examining focusing events, group mobilization and agenda-setting. Using natural disasters and industrial accidents as examples, most focusing events change the dominant issues on the agenda in a policy domain, they can lead to interest group mobilization, and groups often actively seek to expand or contain issues after a focusing event. I explain how differences in the composition of policy communities and the nature of the events themselves influence group and agenda dynamics. The organization of policy communities is an important factor in agenda setting, but agenda setting and group politics vary considerably with the type of event and the nature of the policy community.}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Public Policy}, publisher={Cambridge University Press (CUP)}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1998}, month={Jan}, pages={53–74} }
 @article{birkland_1998, title={In the Wake of the Exxon Valdez: How Environmental Disasters Can Spur Policy Change}, volume={40}, number={7}, journal={Environment}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1998}, pages={4–9 , 27–32} }
 @article{birkland_1998, title={In the wake of the Exxon Valdez: How environmental disasters influence policy}, volume={40}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0345698799&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, number={7}, journal={Environment}, author={Birkland, T.A.}, year={1998} }
 @article{barclay_birkland_1998, title={Law, policymaking, and the policy process: closing the gaps}, volume={26}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0032415493&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, number={2}, journal={Policy Studies Journal}, author={Barclay, S. and Birkland, T.}, year={1998}, pages={227–243} }
 @article{birkland_1998, title={National Earthquake Probabilistic Hazard Mapping Program}, volume={16}, number={3}, journal={International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1998}, pages={371–373} }
 @book{birkland_1997, place={Washington}, title={After Disaster: Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events}, publisher={Georgetown University Press}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1997} }
 @book{after disaster: agenda setting, public policy, and focusing events_1997, journal={Georgetown University Press}, year={1997} }
 @article{birkland_1997, title={Factors inhibiting a national hurricane policy}, volume={25}, ISSN={0892-0753 1521-0421}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08920759709362331}, DOI={10.1080/08920759709362331}, abstractNote={This article contrasts relatively disjointed federal policy dealing with the hurricane hazard with more coordinated federal policy dealing with earthquakes. A comparison between the two hazards is appropriate because of important similarities. However, significant differences between these disasters make the creation of national policy dealing with the hurricane hazard more difficult. These differences include distinctive features of the hurricane hazard and, in particular, features of the policy community that works on the hurricane hazard. Differences between the earthquake and hurricane policy communities reveal the factors that inhibit policymaking. Prospects for a more comprehensive national policy to deal with the hurricane hazard are assessed.}, number={4}, journal={Coastal Management}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1997}, month={Jan}, pages={387–403} }
 @article{birkland_1996, title={Natural Disasters as Focusing Events: Policy Communities and Political Response}, volume={14}, number={2}, journal={International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters}, author={Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1996}, pages={221–243} }
 @article{may_birkland_1994, title={Earthquake risk reduction: an examination of local regulatory efforts}, volume={18}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0028159248&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1007/BF02393621}, number={6}, journal={Environmental Management}, author={May, P.J. and Birkland, T.A.}, year={1994}, pages={923–937} }
 @article{bishop-edkins_birkland_1990, title={Integrating Strategic Planning and Budgeting: A Case Study at the New Jersey Department of Transportation}, volume={1305}, journal={Transportation Research Record}, author={Bishop-Edkins, Christine and Birkland, Thomas A.}, year={1990}, pages={147–152} }
 @inbook{emergency management, climate change, and complex governance in arctic alaska, booktitle={More than ‘nature’: Research on infrastructure and settlements in the North} }