@article{nowell_steelman_velez_albrecht_2022, title={Co-management during crisis: insights from jurisdictionally complex wildfires}, volume={5}, ISSN={["1448-5516"]}, DOI={10.1071/WF21139}, abstractNote={There is a general agreement within the wildfire community that exclusively top–down approaches to policy making and management are limited and that we need to build governance capacity to cooperatively manage across jurisdictional boundaries. Accordingly, the concept of co-management has grown in popularity as a theoretical lens through which to understand cooperative multi-jurisdictional response to wildland fires. However, definitional ambiguity has led to on-going debates about what co-management is. Further, there is limited understanding about the nature of co-management during crisis events. This had led to scholars posing the question: what is co-management in the context of jurisdictionally complex wildfire? In this paper, we seek to address this question based on interviews with leaders engaged in the management of jurisdictionally complex wildfire incidents. We propose a multi-level framework for conceiving co-management as strategic efforts of individual actors to cooperatively manage perceived interdependencies with others through one or more formal or informal institutional arrangements. We then demonstrate the value of the proposed framework in its ability to organise a series of questions for diagnosing co-management situations within the context of jurisdictionally complex wildfires.}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WILDLAND FIRE}, author={Nowell, Branda and Steelman, Toddi and Velez, Anne-lise and Albrecht, Kate}, year={2022}, month={May} }
 @article{steelman_nowell_velez_scott_2021, title={Pathways of Representation in Network Governance: Evidence from Multi-Jurisdictional Disasters}, volume={31}, ISSN={["1477-9803"]}, DOI={10.1093/jopart/muab004}, abstractNote={AbstractGovernance systems reconcile diverse interests to enable collective decision-making and action. Questions related to representation in the governance of networks are addressed in the literature; underexplored is the empirical variation in governance arrangements and pathways of representation. Complex, multi-jurisdictional disasters provide a robust theoretical and empirical context in which to investigate network governance pathways due to the tensions between democratic principles of representation and the need for timely, expert-informed response actions. In this article, we address three questions related to network governance, representation, and complex disasters: what governance structures allow for a representation of diverse interests? What governance structures provide a perception of voice to key affected parties? And where do we see variation in the kinds of structures that give voice to these entities? Using an inductive, grounded theory approach along with mixed methods that include case studies, interviews, and archival data in the form ICS 209 incident reports, we provide evidence from 10 of the most jurisdictionally complex wildfires that took place in 2017. In doing so, we introduce the distinction between macro and micro structures of network governance for understanding more precisely the pathways by which representation occurs and how representation functions in disaster networks. There is no singular normative goal when we think about network governance and representation in disasters; rather there are competing contingencies that emerge out of complex contexts. We propose four key propositions to guide further work in this arena.}, number={4}, journal={JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION RESEARCH AND THEORY}, author={Steelman, Toddi and Nowell, Branda and Velez, Anne-Lise and Scott, Ryan}, year={2021}, month={Oct}, pages={723–739} }
 @misc{vukomanovic_steelman_2019, title={A Systematic Review of Relationships Between Mountain Wildfire and Ecosystem Services}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1572-9761"]}, DOI={10.1007/s10980-019-00832-9}, number={5}, journal={LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY}, author={Vukomanovic, Jelena and Steelman, Toddi}, year={2019}, month={May}, pages={1179–1194} }
 @article{nowell_steelman_2019, title={Beyond ICS: How Should We Govern Complex Disasters in the United States?}, volume={16}, ISSN={["1547-7355"]}, DOI={10.1515/jhsem-2018-0067}, abstractNote={Abstract
               The complexity of large-scale disasters requires governance structures that can integrate numerous responders quickly under often chaotic conditions. Complex disasters – by definition – span multiple jurisdictions and activate numerous response functions carried out by numerous legally autonomous public, nonprofit, and private actors. The command operating structure of the Incident Command System (ICS) is a hierarchical structure used to manage complex incidents. Increasingly, complex disasters are seen as networks of multiple actors. Improving our capacity to respond to large-scale, complex disasters requires moving beyond the “hierarchy versus networks” debate to understand the conditions under which governance structures can best serve disaster response goals. Understanding the capabilities and limitations of the governance structures embedded in our national policy tools and frameworks can enhance our ability to govern effectively in networked contexts. In this article, we suggest the need to shift focus to build greater capacity for hybrid and network governance approaches, including a more sophisticated understanding of the conditions under which these governance forms are most effective.}, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF HOMELAND SECURITY AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT}, author={Nowell, Branda and Steelman, Toddi}, year={2019}, month={May} }
 @article{steelman_nowell_2019, title={Evidence of effectiveness in the Cohesive Strategy: measuring and improving wildfire response}, volume={28}, ISSN={["1448-5516"]}, DOI={10.1071/WF18136}, abstractNote={
The United States’ National Cohesive Wildfire Management Strategy aims to achieve greater social and ecological resilience to wildfire. It also raises the question: cohesive for whom and for what purpose? In this article, we address the wildfire response goal and what a cohesive response means. Namely, we define a cohesive response as the ability to co-manage across scales for a more effective wildfire response. Our approach is grounded in the reality of the growing complexity of wildfire – both biophysically and socio-politically. We suggest that suppression and fire operations are necessary, but insufficient in the face of this growing complexity as we seek safer and effective wildfire response. Using network-based concepts and drawing from the literature on socio-ecological resilience, we consider how scales can be matched, what can and should be communicated across scales, and what this means for creating more adaptable institutions for more effective wildfire response. Survey results from 21 fires during the 2013 wildfire season are presented to illustrate relative areas of strength and weakness related to wildfire response and how these measurements can feed into processes to facilitate social learning, adaptation and ultimately more resilient socio-ecological wildfire response institutions.
}, number={4}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WILDLAND FIRE}, author={Steelman, Toddi and Nowell, Branda}, year={2019}, pages={267–274} }
 @article{nowell_steelman_velez_yang_2018, title={The Structure of Effective Governance of Disaster Response Networks: Insights From the Field}, volume={48}, ISSN={["1552-3357"]}, DOI={10.1177/0275074017724225}, abstractNote={There is significant debate about the appropriate governance structure in a disaster response. Complex disasters exhibit both networked and hierarchical characteristics. One challenge in the field of disaster management is how to structure a response that reconciles the need for centralized coordination among varied responders while retaining flexibility to mutually adjust operations to quickly changing conditions. A key question with both practical and theoretical relevance is, “are there patterns of relationships that are more robust, efficient and effective?” Missing from the current literature is empirical evidence and theory building concerning what actual network structures and characteristics might be associated with effective incident response to complex disasters. In this article, we collected network cognition data from 25 elite, Type 1 Incident Commanders to construct an ideal-type theoretical social network of an effective incident response network. We then analyzed this model to identify a set of propositions concerning the network structure and governance of effective incident response relative to four key network capabilities: (a) rapid adaptation in response to changing conditions, (b) management of distributed information, (c) bilateral coordination, and (d) emergent collective action. Our data suggest that the structure is neither highly integrated nor rigidly centralized. Rather, it is best characterized as a moderate core–periphery structure. Greater theoretical clarity concerning the capabilities associated with this structure is critical for advancing both research and practice in network governance of complex disasters.}, number={7}, journal={AMERICAN REVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION}, author={Nowell, Branda and Steelman, Toddi and Velez, Anne-Lise K. and Yang, Zheng}, year={2018}, month={Oct}, pages={699–715} }
 @article{steelman_2016, title={US wildfire governance as social-ecological problem}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1708-3087"]}, DOI={10.5751/es-08681-210403}, abstractNote={There are fundamental spatial and temporal disconnects between the specific policies that have been crafted to address our wildfire challenges. The biophysical changes in fuels, wildfire behavior, and climate have created a new set of conditions for which our wildfire governance system is poorly suited to address. To address these challenges, a reorientation of goals is needed to focus on creating an anticipatory wildfire governance system focused on social and ecological resilience. Key characteristics of this system could include the following: (1) not taking historical patterns as givens; (2) identifying future social and ecological thresholds of concern; (3) embracing diversity/heterogeneity as principles in ecological and social responses; and (4) incorporating learning among different scales of actors to create a scaffolded learning system.}, number={4}, journal={ECOLOGY AND SOCIETY}, author={Steelman, Toddi}, year={2016} }
 @article{diaz_steelman_nowell_2016, title={Local Ecological Knowledge and Fire Management: What Does the Public Understand?}, volume={114}, ISSN={["1938-3746"]}, DOI={10.5849/jof.14-026}, abstractNote={As fire management agencies seek to implement more flexible fire management strategies, local understanding and support for these strategies become increasingly important. One issue associated with implementing more flexible fire management strategies is educating local populations about fire management and identifying what local populations know or do not know related to fire management. This study used survey data from three 2010 wildland fires to understand how ecological knowledge and education level affected fire management perception and understanding. Results indicated that increased accuracy in identifying ecological conditions was associated with higher proficiencies in the identification of fire management strategies used for wildfires. Education levels were not significantly related to public perception of fire management but were related to significant differences in accurately identifying ecological conditions. Results suggest that education may play a mediating role in understanding complex wildfire issues but is not associated with a better understanding of fire management.}, number={1}, journal={JOURNAL OF FORESTRY}, author={Diaz, John M. and Steelman, Toddi and Nowell, Branda}, year={2016}, month={Jan}, pages={58–65} }
 @article{clark_rutherford_auer_cherney_wallace_mattson_clark_foote_krogman_wilshusen_et al._2011, title={College and University Environmental Programs as a Policy Problem (Part 1): Integrating Knowledge, Education, and Action for a Better World?}, volume={47}, ISSN={["0364-152X"]}, DOI={10.1007/s00267-011-9619-2}, abstractNote={The environmental sciences/studies movement, with more than 1000 programs at colleges and universities in the United States and Canada, is unified by a common interest-ameliorating environmental problems through empirical enquiry and analytic judgment. Unfortunately, environmental programs have struggled in their efforts to integrate knowledge across disciplines and educate students to become sound problem solvers and leaders. We examine the environmental program movement as a policy problem, looking at overall goals, mapping trends in relation to those goals, identifying the underlying factors contributing to trends, and projecting the future. We argue that despite its shared common interest, the environmental program movement is disparate and fragmented by goal ambiguity, positivistic disciplinary approaches, and poorly rationalized curricula, pedagogies, and educational philosophies. We discuss these challenges and the nature of the changes that are needed in order to overcome them. In a subsequent article (Part 2) we propose specific strategies for improvement.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT}, author={Clark, Susan G. and Rutherford, Murray B. and Auer, Matthew R. and Cherney, David N. and Wallace, Richard L. and Mattson, David J. and Clark, Douglas A. and Foote, Lee and Krogman, Naomi and Wilshusen, Peter and et al.}, year={2011}, month={May}, pages={701–715} }
 @article{clark_rutherford_auer_cherney_wallace_mattson_clark_foote_krogman_wilshusen_et al._2011, title={College and University Environmental Programs as a Policy Problem (Part 2): Strategies for Improvement}, volume={47}, ISSN={["1432-1009"]}, DOI={10.1007/s00267-011-9635-2}, abstractNote={Environmental studies and environmental sciences programs in American and Canadian colleges and universities seek to ameliorate environmental problems through empirical enquiry and analytic judgment. In a companion article (Part 1) we describe the environmental program movement (EPM) and discuss factors that have hindered its performance. Here, we complete our analysis by proposing strategies for improvement. We recommend that environmental programs re-organize around three principles. First, adopt as an overriding goal the concept of human dignity-defined as freedom and social justice in healthy, sustainable environments. This clear higher-order goal captures the human and environmental aspirations of the EPM and would provide a more coherent direction for the efforts of diverse participants. Second, employ an explicit, genuinely interdisciplinary analytical framework that facilitates the use of multiple methods to investigate and address environmental and social problems in context. Third, develop educational programs and applied experiences that provide students with the technical knowledge, powers of observation, critical thinking skills and management acumen required for them to become effective professionals and leaders. Organizing around these three principles would build unity in the EPM while at the same time capitalizing on the strengths of the many disciplines and diverse local conditions involved.}, number={5}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT}, author={Clark, Susan G. and Rutherford, Murray B. and Auer, Matthew R. and Cherney, David N. and Wallace, Richard L. and Mattson, David J. and Clark, Douglas A. and Foote, Lee and Krogman, Naomi and Wilshusen, Peter and et al.}, year={2011}, month={May}, pages={716–726} }
 @article{steelman_mccaffrey_2011, title={What is limiting more flexible fire management-public or agency pressure?}, volume={109}, number={8}, journal={Journal of Forestry}, author={Steelman, T. A. and McCaffrey, S. M.}, year={2011}, pages={454–461} }
 @book{steelman_2010, title={Implementing innovation: Fostering enduring change in environmental and natural resource governance}, ISBN={1589016270}, publisher={Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2010} }
 @article{thompson_hess_bowman_magnusdottir_stubbs-gipson_groom_miller_steelman_stokes_2009, title={Courses without Borders?: Collaborative graduate education across multiple campuses}, volume={38}, journal={Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education}, author={Thompson, J. R. and Hess, G. R. and Bowman, T. A. and Magnusdottir, H. and Stubbs-Gipson, C. E. and Groom, M. and Miller, J. R. and Steelman, T. A. and Stokes, D. L.}, year={2009} }
 @article{steelman_hess_2009, title={Effective Protection of Open Space: Does Planning Matter?}, volume={44}, ISSN={["0364-152X"]}, DOI={10.1007/s00267-009-9272-1}, abstractNote={High quality plans are considered a crucial part of good land use planning and often used as a proxy measure for success in plan implementation and goal attainment. We explored the relationship of open space plan quality to the implementation of open space plans and attainment of open space protection goals in Research Triangle, North Carolina, USA. To measure plan quality, we used a standard plan evaluation matrix that we modified to focus on open space plans. We evaluated all open space plans in the region that contained a natural resource protection element. To measure plan implementation and open space protection, we developed an online survey and administered it to open space planners charged with implementing the plans. The survey elicited each planner's perspective on aspects of open space protection in his or her organization. The empirical results (1) indicate that success in implementation and attaining goals are not related to plan quality, (2) highlight the importance of when and how stakeholders are involved in planning and implementation processes, and (3) raise questions about the relationship of planning to implementation. These results suggest that a technically excellent plan does not guarantee the long-term relationships among local land owners, political and appointed officials, and other organizations that are crucial to meeting land protection goals. A greater balance of attention to the entire decision process and building relationships might lead to more success in protecting open space.}, number={1}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT}, author={Steelman, Toddi A. and Hess, George R.}, year={2009}, month={Jul}, pages={93–104} }
 @article{steelman_dumond_2009, title={Serving the Common Interest in US Forest Policy: A Case Study of the Healthy Forests Restoration Act}, volume={43}, ISSN={["1432-1009"]}, DOI={10.1007/s00267-008-9264-6}, abstractNote={In the United States, the common interest often is conceived as a by-product of the pluralist, interest-group-driven democratic process. Special interests dominate in many political arenas. Consequently, we have lost the language, vocabulary, and ability to talk about the common interest. The way to reverse this trend is to develop and practice with new tools that allow us to articulate what we mean by the common interest in specific contexts. In this article, we leveraged the literature on procedural, substantive, and pragmatic decision making to illustrate how they work together to demonstrate whether and how the common interest was served in three case studies of Healthy Forests Restoration Act implementation on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona. In two of the cases we found that the common interest was mostly served, while in the third case it was not. Our results raise questions about the ability of procedural criteria or substantive criteria alone to determine effectiveness in decision making. When evaluated together they provide a more complete understanding of how the common interest is or is not served.}, number={3}, journal={ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT}, author={Steelman, Toddi A. and DuMond, Melissa Elefante}, year={2009}, month={Mar}, pages={396–410} }
 @inbook{steelman_2008, title={Communities and wildfire policy}, ISBN={1933115688}, booktitle={Forest community connections: Implications for research, management, and governance}, publisher={Washington, DC: Resources for the Future}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, editor={Donoghue, E. M. and Sturtevant, V.Editors}, year={2008} }
 @book{steelman_2008, title={Communities and wildfire policy, in forest community connections: implications for research, management, and governance}, institution={Washington, DC: Resources for the Future}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, editor={Donoghue, E. M. and Sturtevant, V.Editors}, year={2008} }
 @inbook{steelman_2007, title={Addressing the mitigation paradox at the community level}, ISBN={1933115521}, booktitle={Wildfire risk: human perceptions and management implications}, publisher={Washington, DC: Resources for the Future}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, editor={W. Martin, C. Raish and Kent, B.Editors}, year={2007}, pages={64–80} }
 @article{steelman_2007, title={Burning lessons from California for N.C.}, volume={14}, journal={News and Observer [Raleigh, N.C.]}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2007}, pages={A} }
 @article{koontz_steelman_carmin_korfmacher_moseley_thomas_2007, title={Collaborative environmental management: What roles for government?}, volume={62}, ISSN={["0921-8009"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.05.024}, abstractNote={Faculty development (FD) is important for continued professional development, but expense and distance remain challenging. These challenges could be minimized by the free and asynchronous nature of social media (SM). We sought to determine the utility and effectiveness of conducting a national online FD activity on Facebook by assessing participants' perceptions and use and facilitators' challenges.An educational activity of a national FD program was managed on a closed Facebook group. Activities included postings of educational technology goals, abstracting an article, and commenting on peers' postings. Sources of quantitative data included the Facebook postings and the survey responses. Surveys before, after, and 6 months after the activity assessed knowledge, attitudes and self-reported behaviors. Sources of qualitative data were the open-ended survey questions and the content of the Facebook postings.All participants completed the FD activity and evaluations, yielding 38 postings and 115 comments. Before the activity, 88% had a personal Facebook account, 64% were somewhat/very confident using Facebook, 77% thought SM would be useful for professional networking, and 12% had used it professionally. Six months after the activity, professional usage had increased to 35%. Continued use of Facebook for future presentations of this FD activity was recommended by 76%. Qualitative analysis yielded 12 types of Facebook postings and 7 themes related to using SM for FD.Conducting a national FD activity on Facebook yielded excellent participation rates and positive participant impressions, and it affected professional usage. Facebook may become an additional tool in the educator's toolbox for FD as a result of its acceptability and accessibility.}, number={2}, journal={ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS}, publisher={Washington, DC: Resources for the Future}, author={Koontz, T. and Steelman, T. A. and Carmin, J. and Korfmacher, K. Smith and Moseley, C. and Thomas, Carrie}, year={2007}, month={Apr}, pages={373–374} }
 @book{steelman_2007, title={Energy demand issues in North Carolina}, institution={Boone: Institute for Emerging Issues for Competitiveness under Constraints: Choices for Energy and the Environment, Boone, NC}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2007} }
 @article{carmin_steelman_2007, title={Factors shaping the outcomes of community based environmental management: lessons from efforts to remediate acid mine drainage in the United States (in Chinese)}, volume={2}, number={6}, journal={Urban Planning Overseas}, author={Carmin, J. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={2007}, pages={90–100} }
 @misc{steelman_2007, title={Green Giants? Environmental Policies of the United States and the European Union}, volume={40}, number={1}, journal={Policy Sciences}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2007}, pages={73–78} }
 @article{steelman_burke_2007, title={Is wildfire policy in the United States sustainable?}, volume={105}, DOI={10.2139/ssrn.1931057}, abstractNote={Beginning in 2000, wildfire policy in the United States shifted from focusing almost exclusively on suppression to embracing multiple goals, including hazardous fuels reduction, ecosystem restoration and community assistance. Mutually reinforcing, these policy goals have the potential to result in an ecologically, socially and economically sustainable wildfire policy that can mitigate the long-term risk of wildfire for human and ecological communities alike. Six years into this new policy, we evaluate the evidence to determine how well the multiple goals are being served. We conclude that suppression and hazardous fuels reduction receive greater attention and resources relative to ecosystem restoration and community assistance. This provides an incomplete solution to mitigating the long-term risk of wildfire, thereby running the risk of perpetuating it.}, number={2}, journal={Journal of Forestry}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Burke, C. A.}, year={2007}, pages={67–72} }
 @misc{steelman_2007, title={The Monongahela controversy and decision}, journal={Forests and forestry in the Americas: an encyclopedia}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2007} }
 @article{hall_steelman_2007, title={The development of a discipline: A 20-year evaluation of Society & Natural Resources}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1521-0723"]}, DOI={10.1080/08941920701581229}, abstractNote={This article presents an assessment of the first 20 years of Society & Natural Resources (SNR), based on a content analysis of places, topics, and methods published; an electronic survey of the membership of the International Association for Society and Natural Resources (IASNR); and an assessment of various measures of journal impact. Findings are used to determine how well the journal is meeting its original goals including the degree to which it is international, diverse, and authoritative. The journal, the International Symposium for Society and Resource Management (ISSRM) conferences, and the membership of IASNR are international, although the developing world is largely absent from membership and research. Articles published in the journal are highly diverse, in terms of the types of articles, topical focus, and the methods used. Conventional journal impact measures show the journal's status to be improving over time. Citation patterns within SNR and its peer journals suggest that cumulative learning is occurring, although the impact of SNR on primary peer journals is mixed.}, number={10}, journal={SOCIETY & NATURAL RESOURCES}, author={Hall, Troy E. and Steelman, Toddi A.}, year={2007}, pages={865–881} }
 @book{cherry_steelman_2006, title={Energy primer: trends, tradeoffs and alternatives for North Carolina}, institution={Z. Smith Reynolds Foundation Meeting}, author={Cherry, T. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={2006} }
 @book{hess_steelman_beechwood_cavalieri_crooks_doig_norwood_paxton_schuster_trinks_2006, title={Guided by planning, powered by people: open space protection in the Triangle}, institution={Raleigh: Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University}, author={Hess, G. and Steelman, T. A. and Beechwood, B. and Cavalieri, S. and Crooks, L. and Doig, S. and Norwood, C. and Paxton, D. and Schuster, G. and Trinks, M.}, year={2006} }
 @article{steelman_2006, title={Park politics in Raleigh}, journal={News and Observer [Raleigh, N.C.]}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2006} }
 @article{steelman_2006, title={Rural North Carolina need landfill alternative}, journal={Wilmington Star}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2006} }
 @article{steelman_2006, title={Trimming wildfire's damage}, journal={News and Observer [Raleigh, N.C.]}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2006} }
 @article{ascher_steelman_2006, title={Valuation in the environmental policy process}, volume={39}, ISSN={["0032-2687"]}, DOI={10.1007/s11077-006-9011-x}, abstractNote={Expert valuation, a process used to determine how much stakeholders value eco-system aspects, places experts as intermediaries for public-preference input into the environmental policy process. While the rise and refinement of expert valuation might capture ecosystem values more comprehensively, two dilemmas are also worth of consideration: (1) will expert valuation and benefit cost analysis supplant democratic expression; and (2) will refinement of expert valuation still leave the ecosystem under valued? This article reorients the current problem from focusing on the need to refine methods to capture more ecosystem benefits to consider how valuation can contribute to a set of more democratic processes that allow the public to contribute to and consider a broader range of policy options.}, number={1}, journal={POLICY SCIENCES}, author={Ascher, W and Steelman, T}, year={2006}, month={Mar}, pages={73–90} }
 @article{steelman_rivera_2006, title={Voluntary environmental programs in the United States - Whose interests are served?}, volume={19}, ISSN={["1552-7417"]}, DOI={10.1177/1086026606296393}, abstractNote={The appeal of voluntary environmental programs (VEPs) lies in their promise to mutually serve government, industry, and environmental interests because they can reduce administrative burdens, provide flexibility to decide how to implement environmental improvements, and work toward superior environmental performance. In practice, however, one interest may be served to the exclusion of others, and this is a charge that often has been leveled at VEPs in the United States. If VEPs are used to serve some interests at the expense of others, they are likely to lose their value as alternative policy instruments. This article details a framework involving procedural, substantive, and practical tests to determine whether the common interest has been served. This assessment framework is applied to two different VEPs in the United States: the Forest Stewardship Council Certification and the Sustainable Slopes Program.}, number={4}, journal={ORGANIZATION & ENVIRONMENT}, author={Steelman, Toddi A. and Rivera, Jorge}, year={2006}, month={Dec}, pages={505–526} }
 @book{brunner_steelman_coe-juell_cromley_edwards_tucker_2005, title={Adaptive governance: integrating natural resource science, decision making and policy}, ISBN={0231136242}, publisher={New York: Columbia University Press}, author={Brunner, R. and Steelman, T. A. and Coe-Juell, L. and Cromley, C. M. and Edwards, C. A. and Tucker, D. W.}, year={2005} }
 @article{steelman_2005, title={Taking responsibility for special places}, journal={News and Observer [Raleigh, N.C.]}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2005} }
 @article{steelman_kunkel_2004, title={Effective community responses to wildfire threats: Lessons from New Mexico}, volume={17}, ISSN={["1521-0723"]}, DOI={10.1080/08941920490480697}, abstractNote={National policies to address the wildfire threat in the United States place emphasis on community responsiveness, but great uncertainty surrounds the scope and success of community response to wildfire threats and why some communities foster effective responses while others fail to do so. Two case studies of community responses to wildfire threats in New Mexico are explored. A decision process framework illustrates how an effective response can be defined. Findings indicate that an effective community response to wildfire means that a community works through all stages of the decision process with appropriate social and structural responses to its specific threat.}, number={8}, journal={SOCIETY & NATURAL RESOURCES}, author={Steelman, TA and Kunkel, GF}, year={2004}, month={Sep}, pages={679–699} }
 @article{steelman_kunkel_bell_2004, title={Federal and state influence on community responses to wildfire threats: Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico}, volume={102}, number={6}, journal={Journal of Forestry}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Kunkel, G. and Bell, D.}, year={2004}, pages={21–27} }
 @article{steelman_kunkel_bell_2004, title={Innovative community responses to wildfire risk}, number={7}, journal={Southwest Community Forestry Research Center Newsletter}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Kunkel, G. and Bell, D.}, year={2004}, pages={1–2} }
 @book{andrews_bell_cavalieri_dixon_dumond_laffitte_mance_townsend_steelman_2004, title={Partners for environmental justice: a history}, institution={Raleigh: Department of Forestry, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University}, author={Andrews, R. and Bell, D. and Cavalieri, S. and Dixon, T. and Dumond, M. and Laffitte, L. and Mance, K. and Townsend, B. and Steelman, T.}, year={2004} }
 @article{steelman_2004, title={The commons in the new millennium: Challenges and adaptation.}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0032-2687"]}, DOI={10.1007/s11077-005-2857-5}, number={3-4}, journal={POLICY SCIENCES}, author={Steelman, TA}, year={2004}, month={Dec}, pages={371–376} }
 @article{martin_steelman_2004, title={Using multiple methods to understand agency values and objectives: Lessons for public lands management}, volume={37}, ISSN={["0032-2687"]}, DOI={10.1023/B:OLIC.0000035463.79209.52}, number={1}, journal={POLICY SCIENCES}, author={Martin, IM and Steelman, TA}, year={2004}, month={Mar}, pages={37–69} }
 @book{steelman_kunkel_bell_2003, title={Addressing the wildfire threat: innovations by communities in Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Kunkel, G. and Bell, D.}, year={2003} }
 @book{steelman_kunkel_bell_2003, title={Community responses to wildland fire threats}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Kunkel, G. and Bell, D.}, year={2003} }
 @book{steelman_kunkel_2003, title={Community responses to wildland fire threats in New Mexico}, journal={Technical brochure published April, 2003}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Kunkel, G.}, year={2003} }
 @article{mandell_steelman_2003, title={Understanding what can be accomplished through interorganizational relationships: the importance of typologies, context and management strategies}, volume={5}, DOI={10.1080/1461667032000066417}, abstractNote={There has been increasing interest in collaborations, partnerships and networks as they have emerged as interorganizational innovations to address the integrated nature of complex policy problems. Understanding the variation in how these innovations work, as well as what they do, is an important step in allowing managers to understand better the implications and applications of these arrangements. This article provides a descriptive and functional analysis of the diverse types of interorganizational innovations with an eye toward achieving a more universal typology of the variations that exist. The article details the various applications for which these different variants can be used and the contextual factors that affect them. The typology and functional analysis is useful for decision makers to assess the types of interorganizational innovations they might want to adopt in a given situation.}, number={2}, journal={Public Management Review}, author={Mandell, M. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={2003}, pages={197–224} }
 @inbook{steelman_carmin_2002, title={Community based watershed remediation: Connecting organizational resources to social and substantive outcomes}, booktitle={Toxic waste and environmental policy in the 21st century United States}, publisher={Jefferson, NC: McFarland}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Carmin, J.}, year={2002} }
 @inbook{steelman_2002, title={Community-based involvement in biodiversity protection in the United States}, DOI={10.1017/cbo9780511492655.008}, abstractNote={The United States possesses great diversity of ecosystems and species. The greatest threat to biodiversity loss in the US comes from the loss and/or degradation of existing habitat. The US has experienced limited success in habitat and species restoration, and more needs to be done to protect remaining special places and the plants and animals that inhabit them.}, booktitle={Protecting the protected: managing biodiversity for sustainability}, publisher={Cambridge University Press}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, editor={Stoll, S. and O'Riordan, T.Editors}, year={2002} }
 @book{steelman_2002, title={Guide to sustainable development and environmental policy}, ISBN={082232735X}, publisher={Durham, NC: Duke University Press}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, editor={William, A. and Natalia, M.Editors}, year={2002} }
 @book{steelman_2002, title={Land protection in Colorado: a study of great outdoors Colorado}, journal={Technical report for institute for policy Implementation}, institution={Denver: Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Colorado at Denver}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2002} }
 @article{steelman_1996, title={Public participation in national forest management: A case study of the Monongahela national forest, West Virginia}, ISBN={["0-7803-3346-2"]}, DOI={10.1109/istas.1996.540446}, abstractNote={What does the public contribute to the decision-making process? Congress has mandated that the public be involved in environmental and natural resource policy-making, yet little is understood about what the public actually contributes to these decision-making processes. This research analyzes the public comments from an important national forest planning process to determine exactly who participated what they said and how they said if to better understand how the role for the public should be defined in environmental and natural resource decision-making efforts.}, journal={TECHNICAL EXPERTISE AND PUBLIC DECISIONS - 1996 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY, PROCEEDINGS}, author={Steelman, TA}, year={1996}, pages={226–230} }
 @article{steelman_2001, title={Elite and participatory policymaking: Finding balance in a case of National Forest planning}, volume={29}, ISSN={["1541-0072"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1541-0072.2001.tb02075.x}, abstractNote={In recent years many theorists and practitioners have called for more public involvement in policymaking and for greater citizen input in decisions. The move toward participatory and community‐based approaches in policymaking can be seen as a backlash against more elitist technocratic, top‐down models of decisionmaking. Using a case study of a successful National Forest planning exercise, this research investigated whether a participatory or elite model characterized the decisionmaking process. The findings indicated that neither an elite nor participatory model of decisionmaking dominated in the planning process; rather, both forms of aecisionmaking contributed to important elements in formulating this successful National Forest plan.}, number={1}, journal={POLICY STUDIES JOURNAL}, author={Steelman, TA}, year={2001}, pages={71–89} }
 @article{deleon_steelman_2000, title={Making public policy programs effective and relevant: the role of the policy sciences}, volume={19}, DOI={10.1002/1520-6688(200124)20:1<163::aid-pam2011>3.0.co;2-w}, abstractNote={Journal of Policy Analysis and ManagementVolume 20, Issue 1 p. 163-171 Curriculum And Case Note Making public policy programs effective and relevant: The role of the policy sciences Peter Deleon, Peter Deleon University of Colorado, DenverSearch for more papers by this authorToddi A. Steelman, Toddi A. Steelman University of Colorado, DenverSearch for more papers by this author Peter Deleon, Peter Deleon University of Colorado, DenverSearch for more papers by this authorToddi A. Steelman, Toddi A. Steelman University of Colorado, DenverSearch for more papers by this author First published: 09 February 2001 https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6688(200124)20:1<163::AID-PAM2011>3.0.CO;2-WCitations: 18AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat REFERENCES Amy, D.J. (1984). Why policy analysis and ethics are incompatible. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 13(4), 573–591. Atkinson, P.A. (1992). Understanding ethnographic texts. Newbury Park: Sage. Atkinson, P.A.& Hammersby, M. (1998). Ethnography and participant observation. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Austin, Diane E. (1998). Cultural knowledge and the cognitive map. Practicing Anthropology, 20(3), 21–24. Berelson, B. (1952). Content Analysis in Communication Research. Gencoe, IL: Free Press. Bok, Derek (1997). Measuring the performance of government. Ch. 2 in Joseph S. Nye, P.D. Zelikow, & D.C. King (Eds.), Why americans don't trust government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brown, S. (1980). Political subjectivity: Applications of Q methodology in political science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Brunner, R.D. (1997a). Raising standards: A prototyping strategy for undergraduate education. Policy Sciences, 30(2), 167–189. Brunner, R.D. (1997b). Teaching the policy sciences. Policy Sciences, 30(2), 217–231. Brunner, R.D. (1991). The policy movement as a policy problem. Policy Sciences, 24(1), 65–98. Conlan, T. (1998). From new federalism to devolution: Twenty-five years of intergovernmental reform. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Dahl, R.A. (1999). On democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. deLeon, P. (1988). Advice and consent: The development of policy sciences. New York: The Russell Sage Foundation. deLeon, P., & Steelman, T.A. (1999). The once and future public policy program. Policy Currents, 9(2), 1–9. Durning, D. (1993). Participatory policy analysis in a social agency: A case study. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 12(2), 231–257. Etzoni, A. (1988). The moral dimension. New York: The Free Press. Fischer, F. (1998). Beyond empiricism: Policy inquiry in a postpositivist perspective. Policy Studies Journal, 26(1), 129–146. Goggin, M., Bowman, A.O'M., Lester, J.P., & O'Toole, L.J. (1990). Implementation theory and practice: Towards a third generation. New York: Harper Collins Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of inquiry. New York: Chandler Publications. Lasswell, H.D. (1949). The democratic character. The Political Writings of Harold D. Lasswell (pp. 465-525). Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. Lasswell, H.D. (1951). The policy orientation. In Daniel Lerner & Harold D. Lasswell (Eds.), The Policy Sciences (pp. 3-15). Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Lasswell, H.D. (1956). The political science of science. American Political Science Review, 50(4), 961–979. Lasswell, H.D. (1971). A preview of policy sciences. New York: American Elsevier. Lasswell, H.D. & McDougal, M.S. (1991). Jurisprudence for a free society. New Haven: Kluwer Law International. Lasswell, H.D. & Pool, I.deS. (1952). Political symbols. In The comparative study of political symbols: An introduction. Stanford: Stanford University Press. McKeown, B. & Thomas, D. (1988). Q methodology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Meltsner, A.J. (1980). Don't slight communication: Some problems in analytic practice. In Giandomencio Majone & Edward S. Quade (Eds.), Pitfalls of analysis. New York: John Wiley. Nye, J.S. Jr. (1997). Introduction. In Joseph S. Nye, , Phillip. D. Zelikow, & David C. King (Eds.), Why americans don't trust government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Orren, G. (1997). Fall from grace: The public's loss of faith in the government. In Joseph S. Nye, Phillip. D. Zelikow, & David C. King (Eds.), Why americans don't trust government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Reisman, M. (1987). Designing curricula: Making legal education continuously effective and relevant for the 21st century. Cumberland Law Review, 17(3). Rubin, H.J. & Rubin, I.S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Schon, D.A. & Rein, M. (1994). Frame reflection. New York: BasicBooks. Sneath, P.H.A. & Sokal, R.R. (1973). Numerical taxonomy: The principles and practice of numerical classification. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. Susskind, L. & Curikshank, J. (1987). Breaking the impasse. New York: BasicBooks. Tang, R. (1986). Ethics in policy analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Wildavsky, A. (1979). Speaking truth to power: The art and craft of policy analysis. Boston: Little, Brown. Citing Literature Volume20, Issue1Winter 2001Pages 163-171 ReferencesRelatedInformation}, number={4}, journal={Journal of Public Policy Analysis and Management}, author={DeLeon, P. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={2000}, pages={163–172} }
 @article{steelman_wallace_2001, title={Property rights and property wrongs: Why context matters in fisheries management}, volume={34}, ISSN={["0032-2687"]}, DOI={10.1023/A:1012660302764}, number={3-4}, journal={POLICY SCIENCES}, author={Steelman, TA and Wallace, RL}, year={2001}, month={Dec}, pages={357–379} }
 @inbook{steelman_2000, title={Agency perceptions about public involvement in national forest management}, booktitle={Social discourse and environmental policy: An application of Q methodology}, publisher={Cheltenham; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Pub.}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, editor={Addams, H. and Proops, J.Editors}, year={2000} }
 @article{steelman_2000, title={Innovation in land use governance and protection - The case of great outdoors Colorado}, volume={44}, ISSN={["0002-7642"]}, DOI={10.1177/00027640021956396}, abstractNote={ Land use governance in the United States traditionally has taken a centralized or decentralized form. This research documents a perceived innovation in land use governance that combines centralized and decentralized approaches—Great Outdoors Colorado (GOCO). Using criteria from the extant literature on growth management and land protection, this research provides a framework for evaluating land protection efforts. The perceived innovation of GOCO is evaluated within this framework. Clear innovations associated with the GOCO program include (a) more appropriate land protection efforts, (b) the cultivation of political support for the projects, (c) a dedicated funding source, and (d) a greater likelihood of implementation and enforcement over centralized or decentralized approaches. The GOCO program could use additional innovation in the way it addresses regional areas of concern and the provision of technical expertise. }, number={4}, journal={AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST}, author={Steelman, TA}, year={2000}, month={Dec}, pages={580–598} }
 @book{kaplan_steelman_2000, title={Matching carbon emission reduction projects to financing: building prototypes}, institution={Denver: Institute for Policy Implementation, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Colorado at Denver}, author={Kaplan, M. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={2000} }
 @misc{steelman_2000, title={Something is happening with Friends of the Cheat}, volume={6}, number={4}, journal={Community based environmental protection news on-line}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={2000} }
 @book{marshall_steelman_2000, title={Task forces on early start projects for carbon emissions reductions: a report of the Brazil/U.S. Aspen Global Forum}, institution={Denver: Institute for Policy Implementation, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Colorado at Denver}, author={Marshall, K. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={2000} }
 @book{kaplan_steelman_1999, title={Early start carbon emission reduction projects: challenge and opportunity}, institution={Denver: Institute for Policy Implementation, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Colorado at Denver}, author={Kaplan, M. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={1999} }
 @book{kaplan_steelman_wallis_1999, title={Sprawl and growth management: problems, experience and opportunity}, institution={Denver: University of Colorado at Denver, Institute for Public Policy Implementation and Evaluation}, author={Kaplan, M. and Steelman, T. A. and Wallis, A.}, year={1999} }
 @article{steelman_1999, title={The Once and future public policy program}, volume={9}, number={2}, journal={Policy Currents}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={1999}, pages={1–9} }
 @article{steelman_1999, title={The Public comment process: what does the public contribute to national forest management?}, volume={97}, number={1}, journal={Journal of Forestry}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={1999}, pages={22–26} }
 @article{steelman_maguire_1999, title={Understanding participant perspectives: Q-nethodology in National Forest Management}, volume={18}, ISSN={["0276-8739"]}, DOI={10.1002/(sici)1520-6688(199922)18:3<361::aid-pam3>3.3.co;2-b}, abstractNote={Many policy practitioners and theorists have argued that value-free, objective solutions to policy problems do not exist. While participant values and subjective viewpoints influence policy problems, empirically determining participant perspectives and preferences has been a daunting task. This paper demonstrates how Q-methodology, a technique for systematically revealing subjective perspectives, can contribute to better problem identification and definition; estimation and specification of policy option; and selection, implementation, and evaluation of policies. Two case studies in national forest management are reviewed and demonstrate how Q-methodology can (1) identify important internal and external constituencies, (2) define participant viewpoints and perceptions, (3) provide sharper insight into participant-preferred management directions, (4) identify criteria that are important to participants, (5) explicitly outline areas of consensus and conflict, and (6) develop a common view toward the policy. © 1999 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF POLICY ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT}, author={Steelman, TA and Maguire, LA}, year={1999}, pages={361–388} }
 @book{steelman_page_burton_1998, title={Change on the range: the challenge of regulating large-scale hog farming In Colorado}, institution={The Wirth Chair in Environmental and Community Development Policy Discussion Paper Series}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Page, B. and Burton, L.}, year={1998} }
 @article{steelman_carmin_1998, title={Common property, collective interests, and community opposition to locally unwanted land uses}, volume={11}, ISSN={["1521-0723"]}, DOI={10.1080/08941929809381096}, abstractNote={Investigations of “not in my backyard”; or NIMBY behavior often focus on the importance of the facility and the role that individual interests, such as property and health concerns, play in fostering opposition from local residents. These studies have not considered the role that common property resources and collective interests play when resistance to unwanted land uses arises. This investigation analyzes events surrounding the siting of a limestone mine on Laurel Mountain, West Virginia. After examining the emergence of a common property resource regime, the types of concerns that local residents expressed are examined. These comments suggest that when a common property resource is present, collective interests and community concerns may provide a stronger rationale for sustained action than individual interests.}, number={5}, journal={SOCIETY & NATURAL RESOURCES}, author={Steelman, TA and Carmin, J}, year={1998}, pages={485–504} }
 @book{kaplan_cuciti_steelman_1998, title={Post Kyoto strategies: the CDM, international cooperation and private sector participation}, institution={Denver: Institute for Policy Implementation, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Colorado at Denver}, author={Kaplan, M. and Cuciti, P. and Steelman, T. A.}, year={1998} }
 @article{steelman_kang_luten_wunderlich_1997, title={Alamosa Ranch: creating and sustaining balance, a resource management proposal}, journal={Working Report for Colorado Division of Local Affairs and Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Programs}, author={Steelman, T. A. and Kang, S. and Luten, K. and Wunderlich, K.}, year={1997} }
 @book{steelman_1997, title={Property rights or property wrongs? Property rights and sustainable fisheries management}, volume={Discussion Paper #2}, institution={The Wirth Chair in Environmental and Community Development Policy Discussion Paper Series}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={1997} }
 @article{steelman_ascher_1997, title={Public involvement methods in natural resource policy making: Advantages, disadvantages and trade-offs}, volume={30}, ISSN={["0032-2687"]}, DOI={10.1023/A:1004246421974}, number={2}, journal={POLICY SCIENCES}, author={Steelman, TA and Ascher, W}, year={1997}, month={May}, pages={71–90} }
 @article{steelman_1996, title={Congressional redistricting 1992: the loss of West Virginia's second district}, volume={17}, number={1}, journal={Comparative State Politics}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={1996}, pages={1–19} }
 @book{steelman_1992, title={Beneath the surface: surface mining regulation reform in West Virginia}, journal={Cases in national rural studies}, institution={Center for Domestic Policy Studies, Princeton University}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={1992} }
 @book{steelman_1992, title={Reconstructing a natural resource dependent economy: a case study of Preston County, West Virginia}, journal={Cases in national rural studies}, institution={Center for Domestic Policy Studies, Princeton University.}, author={Steelman, T. A.}, year={1992} }