@article{wogalter_2020, title={Forensic human factors and ergonomics analysis of a trip and fall event in a parking lot}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1464-536X"]}, DOI={10.1080/1463922X.2019.1706124}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT Built (constructed) environments should have level surfaces to promote mobility and avoid injuries from trips and falls. Wheel stops (usually long concrete slabs with metal bolts to hold them in place) are sometimes placed in parking lots to limit and control how drivers position their vehicle in designated spaces. However, they present potential problems for pedestrians traversing through the area as they can cause trips and falls. A forensic human factors and ergonomics (HFE) analysis of a trip and fall event involving a wheel stop and its bolts in a parking lot is presented. The factors of visual obstruction, salience, attention, expectancy, and relevance issues are discussed. Additionally, an alternative analysis involving hazard control is presented. Potential solutions to limit risk to pedestrians and property owners are described.}, number={3}, journal={THEORETICAL ISSUES IN ERGONOMICS SCIENCE}, author={Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2020}, month={May}, pages={347–368} }
 @article{mayhorn_wogalter_2020, title={Forensic human factors and ergonomics: theory in practice}, volume={21}, ISSN={["1464-536X"]}, DOI={10.1080/1463922X.2020.1731860}, abstractNote={ABSTRACT This lead article of the special issue on Forensic Human Factors and Ergonomics (guest edited by Michael S. Wogalter and Christopher B Mayhorn) introduces the readership to the topic then describes the five articles included.}, number={3}, journal={THEORETICAL ISSUES IN ERGONOMICS SCIENCE}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Mayhorn, Christopher B. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2020}, month={May}, pages={259–265} }
 @article{taylor_wogalter_2019, title={Specific egress directives enhance print and speech fire warnings}, volume={80}, ISSN={["1872-9126"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2019.04.009}, abstractNote={Despite its importance, research examining the effectiveness of different egress warnings in fire emergencies has been sparse. This research examines language-based warnings presented visually in Experiment 1 and spoken format in Experiment 2 on their rated suitability as fire egress warnings. Two types of phrases were manipulated: egress immediacy and egress directives. Phrase ordering was also varied. Both experiments demonstrated a minimal fire warning without egress information is perceived less acceptable than warnings with egress information. The warnings rated as most acceptable contained egress directives indicating how to evacuate safely and that it should be done quickly. Furthermore, analyses on warning length revealed longer, specific warnings were rated higher than shorter warnings. However, data in Experiment 2 suggested the longest statements were rated lower than ones that were somewhat shorter. Results are discussed in terms of application to fire emergency warnings and general warning issues in emergencies.}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={Taylor, Jesseca R. I. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2019}, month={Oct}, pages={57–66} }
 @article{zielinska_mayhorn_wogalter_2017, title={Connoted hazard and perceived importance of fluorescent, neon, and standard safety colors}, volume={65}, ISSN={["1872-9126"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2017.07.011}, abstractNote={The perceived hazard and rated importance of standard safety, fluorescent, and neon colors are investigated.Colors are used in warnings to enhance hazard communication. Red has consistently been rated as the highest in perceived hazard. Orange, yellow, and black are the next highest in connoted hazard; however, there is discrepancy in their ordering. Safety standards, such as ANSI Z535.1, also list colors to convey important information, but little research has examined the perceived importance of colors. In addition to standard safety colors, fluorescent colors are more commonly used in warnings. Understanding hazard and importance perceptions of standard safety and fluorescent colors is necessary to create effective warnings.Ninety participants rated and ranked a total of 33 colors on both perceived hazard and perceived importance.Rated highest were the safety red colors from the American National Standard Institute (ANSI), International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) together with three fluorescent colors (orange, yellow, and yellow-green) from 3 M on both dimensions. Rankings were similar to ratings except that fluorescent orange was the highest on perceived hazard, while fluorescent orange and safety red from the ANSI were ranked as the highest in perceived importance.Fluorescent colors convey hazard and importance levels as high as the standard safety red colors.Implications for conveying hazard and importance in warnings through color are discussed.}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Zielinska, O. A. and Mayhorn, C. B. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={2017}, month={Nov}, pages={326–334} }
 @article{kim_wogalter_2015, title={Effects of emphasis terminology in warning instructions on compliance intent and understandability}, volume={55}, ISSN={["1879-1247"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jsr.2015.07.008}, abstractNote={The aim of this study was to examine whether differing terminology in warning directives can influence compliance intentions and understandability. Despite its important role for warning effectiveness, warning instructions has not received much attention in warning research. Emphasis terms that can be used in warning directives were investigated. Three experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, participants rated a set of 12 warning directive statements consisted of one basic warning directive, which served as the control and the other 11 one- or two-word emphasis phrases that added to a basic directive. In Experiment 2, participants rated 37 emphasizers on compliance intent. In Experiment 3, participants rated the same emphasizers on understandability. The first 2 experiments showed substantial differences in compliance intentions depending on the emphasizer used. For example, some terms and phrases (e.g., "urgent") produced high compliance intent whereas others showed lower compliance intent (e.g., "recommended"). In Experiment 3, some terms were rated as understandable (e.g., "important"), whereas others were rated as somewhat understandable (e.g., "compulsory"). The addition of emphasis terms to the warning directives influenced people's compliance intent and understandability. In addition, significant correlations were found among compliance intent, understandability, and measures of variability. . The findings from this research could aid warning designers in selecting understandable wording that gives rise to different levels of compliance intentions.}, journal={JOURNAL OF SAFETY RESEARCH}, author={Kim, Soyun and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2015}, month={Dec}, pages={41–51} }
 @article{wogalter_mayhorn_zielinska_2015, title={Use of color in warnings}, journal={Handbook of Color Psychology}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Mayhorn, C. B. and Zielinska, O. A.}, year={2015}, pages={377–400} }
 @article{wogalter_shaver_kalsher_2014, title={Effect of presentation modality in direct-to-consumer (DTC) prescription drug television advertisements}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1872-9126"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2013.12.003}, abstractNote={Direct-to-consumer (DTC) drug advertising markets medications requiring a physician's script to the general public. In television advertising, risk disclosures (such as side effects and contraindications) may be communicated in either auditory (voice) or visual (text) or both in the commercials. This research examines presentation modality factors affecting the communication of the risk disclosures in DTC prescription drug television commercials. The results showed that risk disclosures presented either visually only or both visually and auditorily increased recall and recognition compared to no presentation. Risk disclosures presented redundantly in both the visual and auditory modalities produced the highest recall and recognition. Visual only produced better performance than auditory only. Simultaneous presentation of non-risk information together with risk disclosures produced lower recall and recognition compared to risk disclosures alone—without concurrent non-risk information. Implications for the design of DTC prescription drug television commercials and other audio-visual presentations of risk information including on the Internet, are discussed.}, number={5}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, Michael S. and Shaver, Eric F. and Kalsher, Michael J.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={1330–1336} }
 @article{mayhorn_wogalter_laughery_2014, title={Special issue on warnings: Advances in delivery, application, and methods}, volume={45}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2014.02.012}, abstractNote={This special issue of Applied Ergonomics concerns the topic of warnings, safety communications designed to decrease harm to people and property. The field has evolved over time, and with it there has been advancement in knowledge and application. The current special issue contains 14 articles that reflect three distinguishable areas within the warnings literature where such changes are taking place in the laboratories and workplaces of our international colleagues: (1) multimodality of warning delivery, (2) emerging application areas, and (3) new methodology. This special issue brings together a set of studies investigating various factors that might impact safety behavior in diverse settings and domains where warnings are likely to be encountered. It is our hope that the special issue will motivate to development and exploration of new ideas regarding warning design and their use in a variety of applications that improve safety.}, number={5}, journal={Applied Ergonomics}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Mayhorn, Christopher B. and Wogalter, Michael S. and Laughery, Kenneth R.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={1267–1269} }
 @article{duarte_rebelo_teles_wogalter_2014, title={Behavioral compliance for dynamic versus static signs in an immersive virtual environment}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1872-9126"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2013.10.004}, abstractNote={This study used an immersive virtual environment (IVE) to examine how dynamic features in signage affect behavioral compliance during a work-related task and an emergency egress. Ninety participants performed a work-related task followed by an emergency egress. Compliance with uncued and cued safety signs was assessed prior to an explosion/fire involving egress with exit signs. Although dynamic presentation produced the highest compliance, the difference between dynamic and static presentation was only statistically significant for uncued signs. Uncued signs, both static and dynamic, were effective in changing behavior compared to no/minimal signs. Findings are explained based on sign salience and on task differences. If signs must capture attention while individuals are attending to other tasks, salient (e.g., dynamic) signs are useful in benefiting compliance. This study demonstrates the potential for IVEs to serve as a useful tool in behavioral compliance research.}, number={5}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={Duarte, Emilia and Rebelo, Francisco and Teles, Julia and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={1367–1375} }
 @article{mcdougald_wogalter_2014, title={Facilitating pictorial comprehension with color highlighting}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1872-9126"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2013.05.008}, abstractNote={Pictorials can aid in communicating warning information, but viewers may not always correctly comprehend them. Two experiments focused on whether the use of relevant highlighting could benefit pictorial comprehension. A set of warning-related pictorials were manipulated according to three-color highlighting conditions: highlighting areas more relevant to correct comprehension, highlighting areas less relevant to comprehension, and no highlighting. Participants were asked to describe the purpose and meaning of each pictorial presented to them. The findings from both experiments indicate that comprehension of warning pictorials is higher for the relevant highlighting condition than the other two conditions. The highlighting of less relevant areas reduced comprehension compared to no highlighting. Use of appropriately placed highlighting could benefit the design of a complex symbol by pointing out pertinent areas to aid in determining its intended conceptual meaning.}, number={5}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={McDougald, Brannan R. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={1285–1290} }
 @article{wogalter_lim_nyeste_2014, title={On the hazard of quiet vehicles to pedestrians and drivers}, volume={45}, ISSN={["1872-9126"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.apergo.2013.08.002}, abstractNote={The need to produce more efficient and less polluting vehicles has encouraged mass production of alternative energy vehicles, such as hybrid and electric cars. Many of these vehicles are capable of very quiet operation. While reducing noise pollution is desirable, quieter vehicles could negatively affect pedestrian safety because of reduced sound cues compared to louder internal combustion engines. Three studies were performed to investigate people's concern about this issue. In Study 1, a questionnaire completed by 378 people showed substantial positive interest in quiet hybrid and electric cars. However, they also indicated concern about the reduced auditory cues of quiet vehicles. In Study 2, 316 participants rated 14 sounds that could be potentially added to quiet alternative-energy vehicles. The data showed that participants did not want annoying sounds, but preferred adding "engine" and "hum" sounds relative to other types of sounds. In Study 3, 24 persons heard and rated 18 actual sounds within 6 categories that were added to a video of a hybrid vehicle driving by. The sounds most preferred were "engine" followed by "white noise" and "hum". Implications for adding sounds to facilitate pedestrians' detection of moving vehicles and for aiding drivers' awareness of speed are discussed.}, number={5}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, Michael S. and Lim, Raymond W. and Nyeste, Patrick G.}, year={2014}, month={Sep}, pages={1306–1312} }
 @article{duarte_rebelo_teles_wogalter_2014, title={Reprint of: Safety sign comprehension by students, adult workers and disabled persons with cerebral palsy}, volume={61}, ISSN={["1879-1042"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssci.2013.10.010}, journal={SAFETY SCIENCE}, author={Duarte, Emilia and Rebelo, Francisco and Teles, Julia and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2014}, month={Jan}, pages={66–77} }
 @article{duarte_rebelo_teles_wogalter_2014, title={Safety sign comprehension by students, adult workers and disabled persons with cerebral palsy}, volume={62}, ISSN={["1879-1042"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssci.2013.08.007}, abstractNote={This research carried out comprehension testing on a set of symbol-based safety signs using three diverse groups of participants that included adult workers, college students and persons afflicted with cerebral palsy. Few studies have examined "differently abled" populations with respect to safety signs. Open comprehension testing of a set of 17 symbol-based safety signs was carried out using ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 9186 criteria. The intended message for each safety sign was conveyed via two components, a graphical symbol and a surrounding shape–color background. Results showed that most of the signs were not well understood. In some cases, participants were able to correctly understand the meaning of the symbol, but failed to understand the meaning of the shape–color code or vice versa. In general, the adult workers and college students achieved higher comprehension scores than individuals with cerebral palsy. Despite the lower scores obtained by the cerebral palsy group, the pattern of comprehension levels for the "good" and "bad" signs were similar across the three groups. Other findings included statistically significant associations between comprehension and the individual/experience variables (e.g., age, gender, and have a driver's license). Issues associated with categorizing participant responses, including the use of criteria for separately evaluating the meaning of the symbols and color–shape codes, are discussed.}, journal={SAFETY SCIENCE}, author={Duarte, Emilia and Rebelo, Francisco and Teles, Julia and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2014}, month={Feb}, pages={175–186} }
 @article{lesch_powell_horrey_wogalter_2013, title={The use of contextual cues to improve warning symbol comprehension: making the connection for older adults}, volume={56}, ISSN={["1366-5847"]}, DOI={10.1080/00140139.2013.802019}, abstractNote={This study teased apart the effects of comprehensibility and complexity on older adults' comprehension of warning symbols by manipulating the relevance of additional information in further refining the meaning of the symbol. Symbols were systematically altered such that increased visual complexity (in the form of contextual cues) resulted in increased comprehensibility. One hundred older adults, aged 50–71 years, were tested on their comprehension of these symbols before and after training. High comprehensibility–complexity symbols were found to be better understood than low- or medium-comprehensibility–complexity symbols and the effectiveness of the contextual cues varied as a function of training. Therefore, the nature of additional detail determines whether increased complexity is detrimental or beneficial to older adults' comprehension – if the additional details provide ‘cues to knowledge’, older adults' comprehension improves as a result of the increased complexity. However, some cues may require training in order to be effective. Practitioner Summary: Research suggests that older adults have greater difficulty in understanding more complex symbols. However, we found that when the complexity of symbols was increased through the addition of contextual cues, older adults' comprehension actually improved. Contextual cues aid older adults in making the connection between the symbol and its referent.}, number={8}, journal={ERGONOMICS}, author={Lesch, Mary F. and Powell, W. Ryan and Horrey, William J. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2013}, month={Aug}, pages={1264–1279} }
 @article{wogalter_laughery_2012, title={Tire aging: A human factors analysis of failure to warn and inform}, volume={41}, journal={Work-A Journal of Prevention Assessment & Rehabilitation}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Laughery, K. R.}, year={2012}, pages={3624–3628} }
 @article{laughery_wogalter_2014, title={A three-stage model summarizes product warning and environmental sign research}, volume={61}, ISSN={["1879-1042"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.ssci.2011.02.012}, abstractNote={The past 25 years have experienced a substantial amount of research on safety communications, more specifically, warnings. This article focuses on the most important factors in designing effective warnings. The warning process is modeled in three stages. Effective warnings attract attention; elicit knowledge, and enable compliance behavior. Two main categories are design factors and non-design factors. Non-design factors include the effects of target audience and situational factors. For attention, important design factors are size, color/contrast, signal word, graphics, and format. The non-design factors for attention include context, location, and distraction. Design factors affecting the knowledge and compliance stages include explicit wording and pictorials to provide hazard, consequences and instructional content. Non-design factors for the knowledge stage include familiarity and perceived hazard. Non-design factors for the compliance stage include modeling the behavior of others and cost of compliance. The research literature offers practical design recommendations to aid application decisions.}, journal={SAFETY SCIENCE}, author={Laughery, Kenneth R. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2014}, month={Jan}, pages={3–10} }
 @article{lesch_horrey_wogalter_powell_2011, title={Age-related differences in warning symbol comprehension and training effectiveness: effects of familiarity, complexity, and comprehensibility}, volume={54}, ISSN={["1366-5847"]}, DOI={10.1080/00140139.2011.606924}, abstractNote={Age-related changes in selective attention, inhibitory efficiency, and the ability to form new associations suggest that older adults may have greater difficulty with more complex and less comprehensible symbols. We examined comprehension of symbols varying in terms of ratings of familiarity, complexity, and comprehensibility, by younger (aged 18–35) and older (aged 55–70) adults. It was found that older adults have greater difficulty than younger adults in comprehending warning symbols and that accident scenario training improves comprehension. Regression analyses indicated that familiarity and comprehensibility were important in determining performance on the pre-training comprehension test by both younger and older adults. However, training eliminated the effects of stimulus characteristics for younger adults, while older adults' comprehension continued to be significantly influenced by comprehensibility. We suggest that symbol design incorporates cues to knowledge to facilitate the linkage between new knowledge (i.e. the warning symbol) and relevant knowledge in long-term memory. Statement of Relevance: Symbol characteristics play an important role in age-related differences in warning symbol comprehension. To optimise comprehension by older adults, symbols should have a clear relationship with areal-world referent. Alternatively, symbol design could incorporate cues to knowledge to facilitate the linkage between new knowledge and relevant knowledge in long-term memory.}, number={10}, journal={ERGONOMICS}, author={Lesch, M. F. and Horrey, W. J. and Wogalter, M. S. and Powell, W. R.}, year={2011}, pages={879–890} }
 @article{wogalter_feng_2010, title={Indirect Warnings and Instructions Produce Behavioral Compliance}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1090-8471"]}, DOI={10.1002/hfm.20190}, abstractNote={AbstractMost research on warnings assumes a direct flow of information from the source directly to receivers. Reading a manufacturer's product label or manual are examples of directly received warnings. Some communications, however, involve one or more intervening entities (e.g., another person or organization) that serve to convey warning information to the ultimate receiver. With indirect warnings the information does not come directly from the source manufacturer but comes from another entity. The present research examined whether indirectly received warnings benefit compliance in the absence of directly relayed warnings. Participants performed a computer‐memory installation task, in which compliance to three (subtask) behaviors given in the complete instructions/warnings was measured. The effectiveness of indirect warnings was evident. Indirect warning compliance was nearly as high as (but not significantly different from) the direct warning. Implications for the design of hazard communication systems and for warnings in forensic investigations are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.}, number={6}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS IN MANUFACTURING & SERVICE INDUSTRIES}, author={Wogalter, Michael S. and Feng, Eric}, year={2010}, pages={500–510} }
 @article{mayhorn_wogalter_2010, title={Preface to the Special Issue: Considering the Warning Context - New Research Methodologies and Advances}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1090-8471"]}, DOI={10.1002/hfm.20238}, abstractNote={In the last two decades, a large body of research has been published on warnings. There have been hundreds of research-based articles written in various journals as well as several comprehensive books. This special issue of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries (HFEMSI) concerns the topic of warnings. Although there have been special issues on warnings in several human factors/ ergonomics journals, this is the first for HFEMSI. Warnings are relevant in the sectors of manufacturing and service because hazards are embedded in most contexts today. For example, in manufacturing, there are dangers in the production side of product and equipment, as well as hazards involved in the actual use. There are diverse contexts in which warnings are used as a means to disseminate safety information for the purpose of reducing hazard-related harm to people and property. Examples include warning labels on products, signage in environments, and admonitions in operator’s manuals for industrial equipment. Co-occurring with the growing body of warning research has been the development of models to conceptualize the cognitive processing involved when people encounter effective warnings (e.g., Edworthy & Adams, 1996; Lehto & Miller, 1986; Rogers, Lamson, & Rousseau, 2000). A recent iteration of the communication-human information processing (C-HIP) model (see Wogalter, 2006) can be used to conceptualize much of the body of research on warnings. The C-HIP model depicted in Figure 1 has two main sections, each with several component stages. The first section of the framework uses a communications}, number={6}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS IN MANUFACTURING & SERVICE INDUSTRIES}, author={Mayhorn, Christopher B. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2010}, pages={481–483} }
 @article{smith-jackson_wogalter_quintela_2010, title={Safety Climate and Pesticide Risk Communication Disparities in Crop Production by Ethnicity}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1090-8471"]}, DOI={10.1002/hfm.20208}, abstractNote={AbstractPesticide safety is a significant global health concern. This study explored factors associated with the risk divide, a term used to describe disparities in injuries and fatalities between majority and minority workers. Forty (40) farm workers from the South‐Atlantic region of the United States were recruited. Results revealed significant differences between ethnic groups on several measured constructs. Latino migrant workers (from the Americas) reported lower perceived control of their work environment and higher risk perception compared to Americans of European descent. Preliminary recommendations relevant to cultural ergonomics, risk communication usability, and safety climate are provided. Implications relevant to farm and manufacturing settings are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.}, number={6}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS IN MANUFACTURING & SERVICE INDUSTRIES}, author={Smith-Jackson, Tonya and Wogalter, Michael S. and Quintela, Yvette}, year={2010}, pages={511–525} }
 @article{duarte_rebelo_wogalter_2010, title={Virtual Reality and Its Potential for Evaluating Warning Compliance}, volume={20}, ISSN={["1090-8471"]}, DOI={10.1002/hfm.20242}, abstractNote={AbstractBehavioral compliance is usually considered the best measure of warning effectiveness. Researching behavioral effects is difficult to carry out, however, due to concerns for safety, ethics, and high costs. Researchers cannot expose participants to real hazards while conducting a research. A realistic scenario that appears risky but that actually has no risk is expensive to conduct in terms of money, time, and effort. This article reflects on the potential of Virtual Reality (VR) as a technique to investigate warning effectiveness, particularly behavioral compliance. VR may help to overcome several key constraints that have limited warning compliance research, such as hazards actually being manipulated. This article focuses on two information‐processing stages that will most likely benefit from VR: attention and behavior. Increasingly realistic VR can provide high‐quality Virtual Environments (VEs) for use in warnings research. VEs can provide ecological validity and experimental control while limiting actual physical harm. Advantages and limitations are reviewed.  © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.}, number={6}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS IN MANUFACTURING & SERVICE INDUSTRIES}, author={Duarte, Emilia and Rebelo, Francisco and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2010}, pages={526–537} }
 @article{laughery_wogalter_2008, title={On the symbiotic relationship between warnings research and forensics}, volume={50}, ISSN={["1547-8181"]}, DOI={10.1518/001872008X288538}, abstractNote={ Objective: We describe a major factor in research in warnings — namely, forensics. Background: During the past three decades, much of the empirical warnings research has been published in human factors and ergonomics (HF/E) literature. A major impetus to that research has been concurrent activity by HF/E professionals participating as expert witnesses in product liability and personal injury cases in which there is a claim of failure to adequately warn about associated hazards. Method: We review how the issues in forensics can identify researchable questions. This effort has prompted important questions to be addressed that have resulted in publications. Two examples are provided: vehicle seat recline and explicitness. Results: The research has contributed to theory and model building of the processing involved. The research prompted by practical forensic issues can contribute to knowledge that is not limited in scope to particular instances, as is sometimes ascribed to applied research; it can also offer confirmatory support for theory or its modification. Conclusion: A practice-driven approach to the initiation of research can benefit not only application and practice but also theory. Application: Results in the warnings research domain can enhance safety and aid decisions in forensic contexts. }, number={3}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS}, author={Laughery, Kenneth R. and Wogalter, Michael S.}, year={2008}, month={Jun}, pages={529–533} }
 @book{handbook of warnings_2006, ISBN={0805847243}, publisher={Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates}, year={2006} }
 @article{vigilante_wogalter_2005, title={Assessing risk and benefit communication in direct-to-consumer medication website advertising}, volume={39}, number={1}, journal={Drug Information Journal}, author={Vigilante, W. J. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={2005}, pages={12-} }
 @article{wogalter_mayhorn_2005, title={Perceptions of driver distraction by cellular phone users and nonusers}, volume={47}, ISSN={1547-8181}, DOI={10.1518/0018720054679399}, abstractNote={ The present study examined the perceptions of cellular phone users and nonusers on issues relating to vehicle control and driver distraction. Participants were asked if they own a cellular phone; if so, how much they use it; and their beliefs regarding cellular phone use while driving, including actions involving the use of cellular phones which could potentially cause vehicular accidents and the need for laws. A total of 330 individuals participated; 72% owned a cellular phone. The results indicate that nonusers of cellular phones believed more strongly than users that cellular phone use while driving negatively affects driving performance and that talking on the cellular phone could potentially cause an accident, and they also had a greater preference for new laws limiting such acts. Cellular phone users, more than nonusers, preferred no laws limiting cellular phone use and believed more strongly that other people driving while using a cellular phone were more dangerous than themselves doing the same. Implications of these results are discussed. Actual or potential applications of this research include interventions that limit driver distractibility. }, number={2}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS}, publisher={SAGE Publications}, author={Wogalter, MS and Mayhorn, CB}, year={2005}, pages={455–467} }
 @article{hicks_wogalter_vigilante_2005, title={Placement of benefits and risks in prescription drug manufacturers' websites and information source expectations}, volume={39}, ISSN={["0092-8615"]}, DOI={10.1177/009286150503900305}, abstractNote={Two studies addressed aspects related to consumers obtaining risk information about prescription drugs. The first study surveyed people’s beliefs and perceptions concerning the use of nine potential sources of prescription drug information (eg, physicians and pharmacists). Two hundred thirteen participants were asked to rate potential sources of prescription drug information according to: (1) likelihood-of-use, (2) perceived ease-of-use, and (3) completeness of information. Because manufacturers’ direct-to-consumer (DTC) prescription drug websites were rated relatively high in Study 1, a second study was conducted to examine how benefit and risk information was being presented in manufacturers’ DTC websites. Study 2 consisted of an examination of website characteristics (eg, the number-of-clicks and amount of scrolling required) of 20 randomly chosen manufacturers’ DTC prescription drug websites in two separate time periods (March 2001 and July 2003). The current results suggest that risk information is more difficult to access than benefit information. Implications for the delivery of risk information are discussed with particular emphasis on the growing use of the World Wide Web.}, number={3}, journal={DRUG INFORMATION JOURNAL}, author={Hicks, KE and Wogalter, MS and Vigilante, WJ}, year={2005}, pages={267–278} }
 @article{wogalter_mayhorn_2005, title={Providing cognitive support with technology-based warning systems}, volume={48}, ISSN={0014-0139}, DOI={10.1080/00140130400029258}, abstractNote={New and emerging technologies promise to revolutionize risk communication. The benefits of technology are discussed with regard to the components of a recently described warning process model. Examples are provided to illustrate how technology can potentially improve information accessibility and cognitive support. Design principles such as warning interactivity, dynamic modification and personalization are considered as potential applications of technology that should enhance warning effectiveness in future technology-based systems.}, number={5}, journal={ERGONOMICS}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Wogalter, MS and Mayhorn, CB}, year={2005}, month={Apr}, pages={522–533} }
 @article{smith-jackson_wogalter_2004, title={Potential uses of technology to communicate risk in manufacturing}, volume={14}, number={1}, journal={Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing}, author={Smith-Jackson, T. L. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={2004}, pages={14-} }
 @article{wogalter_malpass_mcquiston_2004, title={A national survey of US police on preparation and conduct of identification lineups}, volume={10}, ISSN={["1068-316X"]}, DOI={10.1080/10683160410001641873}, abstractNote={A great deal of research has been aimed at identifying the factors that produce errors in eyewitness identification. However, most of this work has been conducted in laboratory environments using undergraduates and naive lay persons as research participants. Little information is available on what police officers do in the course of their identification activities. The present research investigated the procedures that police officers report employing when constructing and administering eyewitness identification lineups. We developed a survey that addresses a number of these issues, including experience, sources of lineup foils, lineup formation and display, lineup fairness evaluation, presence of suspect's attorney, witness instructions, historical records, and legal challenges. Surveys were sent to 500 US police jurisdictions; 220 were returned. Several survey items showed results consistent with previous laboratory research, however police officers reported using some procedures that are different from those established as most effective in the research literature. This paper summarizes the results of our survey and discusses the implications for future research and forensic procedures.}, number={1}, journal={PSYCHOLOGY CRIME & LAW}, author={Wogalter, MS and Malpass, RS and McQuiston, DE}, year={2004}, month={Mar}, pages={69–82} }
 @article{wogalter_vigilante_2003, title={Effects of label format on knowledge acquisition and perceived readability by younger and older adults}, volume={46}, ISSN={["1366-5847"]}, DOI={10.1080/0014013021000048006}, abstractNote={This research examines consumers' information acquisition and preference for labels of a simulated over-the-counter (OTC) medication. Twelve otherwise identical OTC drug bottles were compared with different back labels varying in (a) print size, (b) amount of white space between text, and (c) label design (standard vs extended/pull-out). A no back label condition served as a control. Older (mean age=77.7 years) and younger (mean age=21 years) adults were given one of the 12 bottles and asked to perform one of two information acquisition tasks: (a) they examined the bottle for 3 minutes and then completed a questionnaire with the bottle absent, or (b) they answered the same questionnaire while the bottle was present. Afterwards, participants were given all of the bottles and asked to rank them according to perceived readability. The younger adults' information acquisition performance was significantly better than the older adults' for all label conditions except the control condition where both groups' low performance did not differ. Specifically, the older adults' performance was significantly better in the medium and large print conditions than in the small print conditions - with the latter conditions not differing from the control condition. Younger adults showed no performance differences among the different print-size conditions. No substantial effects on knowledge acquisition performance from the white space manipulations were found. However, the perceived readability ranks showed that both groups preferred larger print size and white space. The white space effect was smaller than for print size, particularly for older adults. The extended/pull-out label design was facilitative for older adults in that it allowed the use of larger print. The results suggest that older consumers may be unable to acquire information in the ‘fine’ print frequently found in various kinds of product literature.}, number={4}, journal={ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, MS and Vigilante, WJ}, year={2003}, month={Mar}, pages={327–344} }
 @article{wiebe_shaver_wogalter_2002, title={Attitudes about the Internet: Implications for use in education}, volume={31}, DOI={10.2190/l7ub-g81u-0md5-3fk7}, abstractNote={ This study identified beliefs and attitudes about the Internet in relation to different populations of higher education students. A pair of surveys were used to better understand positive and negative attitudes students harbor concerning the WWW and related Internet technologies. The responses were used to both validate what are the most salient positive and negative aspects of the Internet and to reveal differences in attitude toward these aspects based on demographic variables. The results are discussed with respect to the affective dimensions that shape the use of Internet-related technologies and the need for further research into the impact of the Internet on higher education. }, number={2}, journal={Journal of Educational Technology Systems}, author={Wiebe, Eric and Shaver, E. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={2002}, pages={143–156} }
 @article{wogalter_smith-jackson_mills_paine_2002, title={The effects of print format in direct-to-consumer prescription drug advertisements on risk knowledge and preference}, volume={36}, ISSN={["0092-8615"]}, DOI={10.1177/009286150203600324}, abstractNote={This research examined the effects of format in print direct-to-consumer (DTC) prescription drug advertisements in communicating benefit and risks. Print advertisements for sixfictitious drugs were created. Each drug was manipulated on the basis of six conditions, differing on the basis of color and the integration or separation of the benefit and risk information. A sixth condition (control) lacked risk information. Participants were presented with the DTC advertisements. Performance on a subsequent knowledge test of benefit and risk information was measured. Later participants were shown six advertisements of a single drug advertisement each representing the manipulations and were asked to rank them on perceived effectiveness of communicating drug benefits and risks. Results showed that the presence of physical features (eg, color) that distinguish the risk information from other text facilitated knowledge acquisition and increased perceived effectiveness ranks. Implications for the presentation of print risk information in advertisements are discussed.}, number={3}, journal={DRUG INFORMATION JOURNAL}, author={Wogalter, MS and Smith-Jackson, TL and Mills, BJ and Paine, CS}, year={2002}, pages={693–705} }
 @article{wogalter_conzola_2002, title={Using technology to facilitate the design and delivery of warnings}, volume={33}, ISSN={["1464-5319"]}, DOI={10.1080/00207720210133651}, abstractNote={This paper describes several ways in which new technologies can assist in the design and delivery of warnings. There are four discussion points: (1) current product information can be delivered via the Internet; (2) computer software and hardware are available to assist in the design, construction, and production of visual and auditory warnings; (3) various detection devices can be used to recognize instances in which warnings might be delivered; and (4) a warning presentation can be modified to fit conditions and persons. Implications, example applications and future prospects of these points are described.}, number={6}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SYSTEMS SCIENCE}, author={Wogalter, MS and Conzola, VC}, year={2002}, month={May}, pages={461–466} }
 @book{wogalter_young_laughery_2001, title={Human factors perspectives on warnings, volume 2: Selections from Human Factors and Ergonomics Society annual meetings, 1994-2000}, ISBN={0945289170}, publisher={Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society}, author={Wogalter, S. L. and Young, S. L. and Laughery, K. R.}, year={2001} }
 @article{leonard_wogalter_2000, title={What you don't know can hurt you: household products and events}, volume={32}, ISSN={["0001-4575"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0001-4575(99)00072-X}, abstractNote={Product safety is affected by product design and by the knowledge of the user, either through the user's own background or through instructions and warnings presented with the product. Given adequate knowledge, warnings can serve primarily to remind individuals of the hazards and precautions that can be taken. This study examined people in the USA (represented by two diverse samples) to evaluate their knowledge about the hazards associated with common household products and situations using both multiple choice and open-ended surveys. The results indicated that the respondents were aware of a substantial number of hazards, but their knowledge often did not extend to the specific circumstances that could produce personal injury and property damage. Further, comparisons of cued and non-cued responses suggested some hazards are not well recognized without the cue. The results indicate warnings are needed both as reminders and to provide safety information.}, number={3}, journal={ACCIDENT ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION}, author={Leonard, SD and Wogalter, MS}, year={2000}, month={May}, pages={383–388} }
 @article{parsons_seminara_wogalter_1999, title={A summary of warnings research}, DOI={10.1177/106480469900700105}, abstractNote={VER THE PAST DECADE AND a half, a tremendous volume of research has accumulated in the area of warnings and risk perception. We have learned a great deal about the factors that influence safety-related information processing and behavior. Guidelines for warning design no longer need to be based on expert opinion; they can now be supported by the results of empirical research. This article reviews and summarizes data from more than 150 laboratory and field studies published mainly in the last 15 years and mostly in the Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (HFES). A broad overview of research findings is presented in 24 alphabetized sections. Although we do not explicitly give design recommendations, these studies contain implicit design guidelines. The summaries reflect our current knowledge on the factors that influence warning effectiveness. We believe this review will be useful to human factors designers and consultants who produce and evaluate warnings. Additionally, it can serve as a handy reference guide that could be useful to government regulators, industry managers, consumer product organizations, industrial hygienists, marketers, researchers, expert witnesses, and attorneys who need guidance on warnings. As is common in many kinds of active research activities, the results of studies on any given topic will not concur with other study results. Despite this, we try to give general conclusions in our summaries. Further research will bring more detail and clarity to the field. The major findings are given below in alphabetical order.}, number={1999 Jan.}, journal={Ergonomics in Design}, author={Parsons, S. O. and Seminara, J. L. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1999}, pages={21–31} }
 @inbook{wogalter_kalsher_glover_magurno_1999, title={Connecting jumper cables: the effectiveness of pictorial warnings}, booktitle={Visual information for everyday use: Design and research perspectives}, publisher={London: Taylor & Francis}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Kalsher, M. J. and Glover, B. L. and Magurno, A. B.}, editor={H. J. G. Zwaga, T. Boersema and Hoonhout, H. C. M.Editors}, year={1999}, pages={127–132} }
 @article{wogalter_kalsher_rashid_1999, title={Effect of signal word and source attribution on judgments of warning credibility and compliance likelihood}, volume={24}, ISSN={["0169-8141"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0169-8141(98)00025-0}, abstractNote={Social-communication models frequently include message source as an important factor in persuasion. However, research on the contribution of source characteristics to warning effectiveness is virtually non-existent. The present research involved two experiments. Experiment 1 examined the effects of the presence (vs. absence) of the signal word WARNING, supplementing it with the source-related term GOVERNMENT to the signal word, and the addition of more specific terms (i.e., US and FEDERAL) on ratings of credibility and compliance likelihood for alcohol, cigarette, and iron supplement warnings. Higher ratings were produced with the signal word's presence than its absence and adding more specificity (and length) to the source. The highest ratings accompanied the longest, most specific prefix: US FEDERAL GOVERNMENT WARNING. Experiment 2 investigated three types of sources on credibility and compliance likelihood: (1) specific regulatory governmental agencies (e.g., US FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION), (2) specific scientific professional groups (e.g., AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION), and (3) general statements in which an explicit source is not mentioned (e.g., Important Health Warning). The inclusion of specific sources produced higher ratings compared to a signal word (WARNING) alone. Implications for warning design and further research are discussed. Relevance to industry Warning messages are used to communicate information about potential hazards and how to avoid injury and property damage. This research shows that the presence of a signal word and adding specific source information (telling who is giving the message) was found to increase credibility judgments and compliance intentions. Implications for enhancing warning effectiveness are discussed.}, number={2}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, MS and Kalsher, MJ and Rashid, R}, year={1999}, month={May}, pages={185–192} }
 @article{wogalter_magurno_dietrich_scott_1999, title={Enhancing information acquisition for over-the-counter medications by making better use of container surface space}, volume={25}, ISSN={["0361-073X"]}, DOI={10.1080/036107399244129}, abstractNote={Most over-the-counter (OTC) pharmaceutical container labels are printed in very small type. Consequently, people with visual impairments (e.g., presbyopia in older adults) have difficult reading the material. Some OTC drugs are packaged in containers with easy-open caps. This design increases the surface area that could be used to enhance the labeling. In Experiment 1, older adults (M = 75.1 years, SD = 8.1) evaluated six container label variants for an actual OTC product. Besides having a multipanel main label, four containers had labels attached to the cap that displayed the most important information in large print but differed in color. Two control containers lacked a cap label; one had only a four-panel main label, and the other had only the front label. Participants ranked the containers on six dimensions (e.g., label noticeability, willingness to read). Results showed greater preference for containers with the cap labels. Experiment 2 again examined preferences but also measured information-acquisition performance after participants (M = 79 years, SD = 5.8) were briefly exposed to a realistic-appearing, but fictitious, OTC medication. Results showed greater knowledge and preference for containers with the cap labels. Experiment 2 showed that one of the cap colors (yellow) that was different from the main label was preferred over the white and orange (the same colors as on the main label), but color distinctiveness as an explanation was not fully supported because the green cap was not significantly different from the other cap labels. Implications for communicating information about OTC drugs using expanded labels are discussed.}, number={1}, journal={EXPERIMENTAL AGING RESEARCH}, author={Wogalter, MS and Magurno, AB and Dietrich, DA and Scott, KL}, year={1999}, pages={27–48} }
 @inbook{wogalter_1999, title={Factors influencing the effectiveness of warnings}, booktitle={Visual information for everyday use: Design and research perspectives}, publisher={London: Taylor & Francis}, author={Wogalter, M. S.}, editor={H. J. G. Zwaga, T. Boersema and Hoonhout, H. C. M.Editors}, year={1999}, pages={93–110} }
 @article{wogalter_howe_sifuentes_luginbuhl_1999, title={On the adequacy of legal documents: factors that influence informed consent}, volume={42}, ISSN={["1366-5847"]}, DOI={10.1080/001401399185504}, abstractNote={People are frequently asked to make commitments by signing contracts, consent forms and other legal documents. Although it is prudent to read these forms carefully, people sometimes do not do so. The present research sought to assess some of the factors related to the usability of legal documents. In study 1, participants reported that they had signed a variety of legal documents that they did not fully read or understand. They also identified characteristics that hinder understanding and offered suggestions for improvement. In study 2, another group of participants rated those characteristics and confirmed the first study's findings. Study 3 measured the effects of three different research participation consent forms: conventional ‘legalistic’, improved, and one-line (control). Results showed that the improved form significantly enhanced comprehension compared to the conventional form and both were higher than the control. Even though comprehension with the conventional legalistic consent form was poor, ...}, number={4}, journal={ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, MS and Howe, JE and Sifuentes, AH and Luginbuhl, J}, year={1999}, month={Apr}, pages={593–613} }
 @article{wogalter_young_brelsford_barlow_1999, title={The relative contributions of injury severity and likelihood information on hazard-risk judgments and warning compliance}, volume={30}, ISSN={["0022-4375"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0022-4375(99)00010-9}, abstractNote={Research suggests that people base their judgments of product hazardousness on perceptions of the severity of potential injury. However, other research suggests that people base their risk perceptions on the likelihood of being injured. Four studies are presented that attempt to reconcile these findings. Studies 1 and 2 investigated whether the discrepancy could be attributed to the particular item lists used in the respective research. Study 1 showed that injury severity was the foremost predictor of perceived hazard in one list, but that injury likelihood was the best predictor in the other list. The two lists differed significantly on all the rating dimensions, suggesting that the items in the lists are at least partly responsible for the conflicting findings. Study 2, using a different set of items, confirmed that injury severity is the foremost predictor of hazard perceptions for consumer products. The last two studies examined the effects of injury likelihood and severity information in warnings on perceived product hazard and behavioral compliance. In Study 3, participants evaluated a set of product labels under the guise of a consumer marketing study in which the conveyed levels of injury severity and likelihood were incidentally manipulated. The results showed high severity warnings produced higher hazard ratings than low severity warnings. Injury likelihood produced no effect. Study 4 showed that a higher severity warning produced greater behavioral compliance than a low severity warning, but only for low injury likelihoods. Overall, this research: (a) provides an explanation for the conflicting results in hazard and risk perception research; and (b) demonstrates that injury severity is the primary determinant of lay persons' hazard perceptions for consumer products. The findings suggest that safety communications might have greater impact if they focused on injury severity, rather than (or to a lesser extent) the likelihood of getting hurt.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF SAFETY RESEARCH}, author={Wogalter, MS and Young, SL and Brelsford, JW and Barlow, T}, year={1999}, pages={151–162} }
 @article{conzola_wogalter_1999, title={Using voice and print directives and warnings to supplement product manual instructions}, volume={23}, ISSN={["0169-8141"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0169-8141(98)00018-3}, abstractNote={The present research investigated the effect of supplemental messages on compliance with and recall of product manual instructions. During the unpacking of a computer disk drive supplemental messages were presented that concerned procedures to prevent product damage during installation. The supplemental messages were either presented by digitized voice (auditory) or by printed placard (visual). Two types of message were presented. Either the message gave specific warning instructions or directed users to a specific location in the product manual where the instructions were printed. Results show that the supplemental voice and print messages increased compliance behavior compared to the manual only. The voice message produced the greatest recall compared to print or no supplement. There was no effect of the warning vs directive manipulation. The results support the use of supplemental messages to communicate particularly important information. Implications for the delivery of warning instructions in product manuals are discussed. Relevance to industry Manufacturers are responsible for warning users about hazards associated with foreseeable use or misuse of their products. The present study shows that a supplemental print or voice message combined with a typical product manual produces significantly higher compliance than the manual alone.}, number={5-6}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS}, author={Conzola, VC and Wogalter, MS}, year={1999}, month={Mar}, pages={549–556} }
 @article{wogalter_vigilante_baneth_1998, title={Availability of operator manuals for used consumer products}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0003-6870"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0003-6870(97)00050-1}, abstractNote={This research investigates the availability of operator manuals for used (second-hand or resold) consumer products. One hundred people were solicited at a shopping mall and asked various questions about 20 common consumer products (e.g. car, computer, power lawn mower, bicycle, etc.). They were queried about: (a) whether they have ever purchased the products new and/or used and, if purchased used, whether it came with an operator manual or an instruction sheet, (b) whether they personally sold any of the products used, and if so, whether they transferred the operator manual to the receiver, (c) the desirability of having an operator manual; and (d) how much they would be willing to pay for a manual assuming they had to purchase it separately. Participants were also asked to rate each product on familiarity, hazard level, and difficulty of use, and to answer a set of general manual-related questions. A second survey solicited the opinions of 39 professional sellers (dealers) of used products. Findings from both surveys indicate that while operator manuals for some used products are transferred to purchasers at moderate frequencies, others are much lower. In general, participants believed that the inclusion of the operator manual would aid the sale of used products and they were willing to pay extra to have one (particularly for unfamiliar, more hazardous, difficult-to-use products). The results suggest that manufacturers ought to address ways that would make it more likely that consumers retain the operator manual and transfer it to subsequent purchasers at later resale. Additionally, convenient ways of obtaining replacement copies should be provided to ensure that important safety-related information reaches end users.}, number={3}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, MS and Vigilante, WJ and Baneth, RC}, year={1998}, month={Jun}, pages={193–200} }
 @article{wolff_wogalter_1998, title={Comprehension of pictorial symbols: Effects of context and test method}, volume={40}, ISSN={["1547-8181"]}, DOI={10.1518/001872098779480433}, abstractNote={ This research examined two factors involved in the evaluation of pictorial symbol comprehension: context (absence vs. presence of photographs depicting the probable environments where a symbol would be seen) and test method (multiple-choice with less vs. more plausible distractor alternatives vs. open-ended). We tested 33 pictorial symbols from various sources. The results showed that the multiple-choice test with less plausible distractors inflated comprehension scores by an average of 30% compared with the other two tests, which did not differ. The presence of context increased symbol comprehension in the open-ended test and in the multiple-choice test that had more plausible distractors. Extensive preliminary procedures demonstrated the difficulty of forming a multiple-choice test with plausible distractor alternatives. This fact, combined with multiple-choice tests′ low ecological validity in reflecting the real-world task of symbol comprehension, suggests that this test should be avoided in favor of an open-ended testing procedure. It is suggested that context provides ecologically valid cues that limit the range of possible constructs that the pictorial symbol could be, raising comprehension scores. The use of context may help reduce the costs (money, time, effort) of producing pictorial symbols with acceptable, above-criterion comprehension levels. }, number={2}, journal={HUMAN FACTORS}, author={Wolff, JS and Wogalter, MS}, year={1998}, month={Jun}, pages={173–186} }
 @article{conzola_wogalter_1998, title={Consumer product warnings: effects of injury statistics on recall and subjective evaluations}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804200608}, abstractNote={ Research has shown that explicitly worded warnings are judged to be more effective than similar warnings lacking explicitness. One possible way of increasing warning explicitness is to include injury outcome statistics in the warning statement. The heuristic processing model of persuasion would postulate that the impact of persuasive messages, like warnings, is influenced by heuristic cues such as the number and length of arguments and the presence of statistics. This research investigated the effect of embedding injury outcome statistics in the safety instructions for electric power tools. Warning statement recall and various rating judgments were measured. Results showed that the presence of statistics led to greater recall and higher ratings of warning importance, vividness, and explicitness. Implications for the design of consumer product warnings are discussed. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Conzola, V. C. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={559–563} }
 @article{smith-jackson_wogalter_1998, title={Determining the preferred order of materials safety data sheets (MSDS): a user-centered approach}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804201504}, abstractNote={ Although the Hazard Communication Standard (OSHA, 1994) provides recommendations for the type of information contained in materials safety data sheets (MSDSs), there are no regulations for the order in which information should be presented. Research and theory suggest that information displays that are constructed to match the user's mental model facilitate visual search efficiency and accuracy. The present research was designed to determine whether there is a preferred ordering of MSDS information that novices expect, presumably based on their cognitive expectations. Sixty participants were given MSDS section information on separate sheets and asked to arrange them in an order they considered most usable. The results showed differences in the placement of certain components within different MSDSs and the consistent placement of other components (e.g., Health Hazards Data, Physical Data) at the beginning or the end. Results showed support for common mental models among novices relating to the order in which safety information should be displayed. Implications for the design of MSDSs and safety material are discussed. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Smith-Jackson, T. L. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={1073–1077} }
 @article{drake_conzola_wogalter_1998, title={Discrimination among sign and label warning signal words}, volume={8}, DOI={10.1002/(sici)1520-6564(199823)8:4<289::aid-hfm1>3.3.co;2-b}, abstractNote={Signal words are commonly used in warnings to quickly communicate potential hazards. Current standards and guidelines define the terms DANGER, WARNING, CAUTION, and NOTICE as denoting decreasing hazard levels, respectively. This study examined whether definitions assigned to these words coincide with people's understanding of them. Seventy-two participants attempted to match published definitions to the terms. Additionally, they rated the terms on various dimensions (e.g., hazardousness, understandability). The results showed that people differentiate DANGER and NOTICE but less clearly discriminate between WARNING and CAUTION. The term DEADLY, a proposed higher level signal word, was perceived as connoting the greatest hazard. Implications for warning design are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.}, number={4}, journal={Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing}, author={Drake, K. L. and Conzola, V. C. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={289–301} }
 @article{hink_eustace_wogalter_1998, title={Do grables enable the extraction of quantitative information better than pure graphs or tables?}, volume={22}, ISSN={["0169-8141"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0169-8141(97)00017-6}, abstractNote={Abstract Previous research is equivocal regarding the most effective methods of presenting quantitative information displays. The differences in results may be due to numerous reasons including the display and inquiry type. This study examines several methods of displaying quantitative information (e.g., line graphs, line grables, bar charts, bar grables, tables, pie charts and pie grables) that were factorially crossed with different kinds of data extraction inquiries (i.e., questions about exact numerical quantities, comparisons, and trends). Grables are displays that combines features of graphs and tables including specific numerical information with each graphically presented category. Results showed that tables, bar grables and line grables produced the fewest errors, and line graphs and bar charts produced the fastest responses across question types. Error rates combining the accuracy and time (i.e., errors/s) were lowest for the three grables and table. Results are discussed with respect to prior theoretical work and the potential benefits of hybrid forms of quantitative displays for multiple kinds of data extraction inquiries. Relevance to industry Choosing the best method of displaying information is important for effective decision making. This study evaluates seven types of graphical displays to answer three types of inquiries. Results indicate that in general, the most efficient data extraction (fewest errors per unit time) were produced using grable or table displays across question types. The appropriate display fosters better communication of information.}, number={6}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS}, author={Hink, JK and Eustace, JK and Wogalter, MS}, year={1998}, month={Dec}, pages={439–447} }
 @article{wogalter_brantley_laughery_lovvoll_1998, title={Effects of warning quality and expert testimony on allocation of responsibility for consumer product accidents}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804200904}, abstractNote={ The purpose of this experiment was to examine the effects of warning quality and human factors expert testimony on decision making in consumer product injury cases. Participants read summaries of consumer product accidents, where a no, poor or good warning was present. In two conditions, human factors (HF) expert testimony was included, giving an opinion on the quality of the product warnings. Participants allocated percentages of responsibility to the manufacturer, retailer, and consumer, as if they were jury members assigned to the cases. Results showed differences in allocations of responsibility among conditions. Manufacturers were allocated more responsibility when there was no warning on the product or when a poor warning was present and a HF expert testified that a better warning could have been used. Allocations did not differ between poor and good warning conditions, possibly because participants viewing poor warnings lacked knowledge of the way a good warning would look. The results have implications for warning design, the use of HF expert witnesses, and jury decision making. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Brantley, K. A. and Laughery, K. R. and Lovvoll, K. R.}, year={1998}, pages={665–669} }
 @article{laughery_laughery_lovvoll_mcquilkin_wogalter_1998, title={Effects of warnings on responsibility allocation}, volume={15}, ISSN={["0742-6046"]}, DOI={10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199810)15:7<687::AID-MAR5>3.0.CO;2-B}, abstractNote={Four experiments explored the effects of warnings on people's allocation of responsibility for product safety. Participants read descriptions of accident scenarios in which injuries occurred during the use of products. They then allocated responsibility to the manufacturer, retailer, or consumer (user). Results of two experiments indicated more responsibility was assigned to the consumer and less to the manufacturer when products were accompanied hy a warning (76%-94% to the consumer), compared to a no-warning condition (41%-68%). A third experiment compared responsibility allocations for good versus poor warnings. Consumers were assigned more responsihility (83%) with good warnings than with poor warnings (69%). The fourth experiment again showed warnings played a significant role in the allocations, but injury severity did not. Interactions in all four experiments indicated the role of warnings in responsibility allocations was less for products where the hazards are more obvious. In addition to implications for product safety, the results provide insights into jury decision making regarding the role of warnings in product liability litigation. t 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This article presents the results of a series of experiments carried out to explore how warnings influence people's allocation of responsibility Psychology & Marketing Vol. 15(7):687-706 (October 1998) € 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0742-6046/98/070687-20}, number={7}, journal={PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING}, author={Laughery, KR and Laughery, BR and Lovvoll, DR and McQuilkin, ML and Wogalter, MS}, year={1998}, month={Oct}, pages={687–706} }
 @article{wogalter_kalsher_frederick_magurno_brewster_1998, title={Hazard level perceptions of warning components and configurations}, volume={2}, number={1-2}, journal={International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Kalsher, M. J. and Frederick, L. J. and Magurno, A. B. and Brewster, B. M.}, year={1998}, pages={123–143} }
 @article{kalsher_phoneix_wogalter_braun_1998, title={How do people attribute blame for burns sustained from hot coffee? The role of causal attributions}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804200901}, abstractNote={ Safety researchers have begun to systematically examine how people assign blame for injuries sustained during the use of or exposure to consumer products. In this study we examine people's attributions in the context of product-use scenarios loosely based on the now famous incident in which a woman was scalded by hot coffee from McDonald's. Each scenario described a situation in which a person (driver or passenger) was burned when they spilled hot coffee on themselves while going to work. Supplementary information intended to be either positive or detrimental to McDonald's was either present or absent from the scenario. In general, participants allocated more responsibility to the consumer than to McDonald's. Depicting the consumer as the driver or passenger had no effect on participants' allocations. As expected, adding information that is detrimental to McDonald's shifted blame away from the consumer and toward McDonald's. Adding positive information had no corresponding effect. The implications of these results for consumers, legal professionals, and researchers are discussed. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Kalsher, M. J. and Phoneix, G. M. and Wogalter, M. S. and Braun, C. C.}, year={1998}, pages={651–655} }
 @article{barzegar_wogalter_1998, title={Intended carefulness for voiced warning signal words}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804201503}, abstractNote={ Design standards for print warnings (e.g., signs and labels) recommend the use of signal words to convey the presence and level of a hazard. However, very little research has been conducted on the use of signal words presented auditorily. In the present study, 43 voiced signal words were examined as a function of several factors: voice style (monotone, emotional, whisper), sound level (low, high), participant group (college students, community volunteers) and gender of the speaker and the participant. Results indicated that auditory presentation yielded a pattern of connoted hazard levels (ratings of intended carefulness) similar to previous research using visual presentation. Emotional voicing produced significantly higher carefulness ratings than monotone or whisper voicing (with overall sound level held constant). Female speakers produced significantly higher carefulness ratings than male speakers. Implications for the design of speech warnings are discussed. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Barzegar, R. S. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={1068–1072} }
 @article{wogalter_hancock_dempsey_1998, title={On the description and definition of human factors/ergonomics}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804201001}, abstractNote={ This work examines the terms most frequently used to describe our field, which has variously been named Ergonomics, Human Factors, Human Factors Engineering, and Engineering Psychology. A large number of definitions were collected, including those assembled in an earlier technical report by Licht, Polzella, and Boff (1990). First, the definitions were stripped of connector words. Second, the prefix root terms that had the same meaning were combined and third, the words were tabulated and sorted to reveal the content terms most frequently employed. These data may be used to develop core, concise definitions or longer more expository descriptions of the field. The list of terms could also be used as a starting point for the development of definitions oriented for different target audiences (e.g., lay persons vs. other engineering/science experts) as a method of disseminating information concerning what we do. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Hancock, P. A. and Dempsey, P. G.}, year={1998}, pages={671–674} }
 @article{vigilante_wogalter_1998, title={Product manual safety warnings: the effects of ordering}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804200615}, abstractNote={ This study examined whether the ordering or sequencing of hazard warnings in product manuals affects users' acquisition of safety information. Participants were given one of five manuals that differed only in the warning sequencing. Warnings were ordered according to importance, obviousness, nonobviousness, the manufacturer's (original) ordering, or no warnings were present. Participants examined the manual for three minutes or had unlimited time. Later, participants were tested on their knowledge of warning-related material. Analysis showed that males and females produced different patterns of results. For males, the manual with the least obvious hazards first was best; for females, the manual with the most obvious hazards first was best. It is suggested that these results may be at partially due to product familiarity. The results indicate that the ordering of warnings can influence the amount of warning information that people acquire and that the best ordering might depend on such factors as the demographics or familiarity of the users. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Vigilante, W. J. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={593–597} }
 @article{murray_magurno_glover_wogalter_1998, title={Prohibitive pictorials: Evaluations of different circle-slash negation symbols}, volume={22}, ISSN={["0169-8141"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0169-8141(97)00029-2}, abstractNote={To indicate a prohibited activity, pictorials are frequently overlaid with a red circle and 45° left-to-right slash. Previous research suggests that the combination of the slash and symbol may affect the overall identifiability of the warning. The purpose of the present research was to determine whether people's judgments of four types of the circle-slash (a slash over the symbol, a slash under the symbol, a partial slash, and a translucent slash) would differ in perceived effectiveness. Sixteen pictorials with semantically different message content (e.g., NO TRUCKS, DO NOT CLIMB TOWER), in both left-facing and right-facing orientations were viewed by 60 participants. The results revealed that the over and under slashes were preferred to the translucent or partial slashes. Both orientation and slash type influenced preference for a subset of nonsymmetrical symbols. Some of the pictorials with the over slash were given lower evaluations when critical features were concealed. The general preference for the over and under slashes may be due to familiarity and its concordance with Gestalt principles of good figures. Implications for the development of prohibitive pictorials are discussed. Relevance to industry Pictorials are increasingly being used to communicate safety information in cases where the target audience may use different languages. The present research examines different versions of the circle-slash negation symbol for the purpose of determining when critical pictorial elements may be obscured. Implications for pictorial recognition are discussed.}, number={6}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS}, author={Murray, LA and Magurno, AB and Glover, BL and Wogalter, MS}, year={1998}, month={Dec}, pages={473–482} }
 @article{young_wogalter_1998, title={Relative importance of different verbal components in conveying hazard-level information in warnings}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804201502}, abstractNote={ Participants rated 18 different warning-type statements describing various hazardous scenarios. The components of the statements were manipulated according to five variables: duration of exposure to the hazard, quantity of exposure to the hazard, likelihood of injury, severity of injury, and duration of injury. The relative importance of these variables in influencing hazard ratings was evaluated. The component describing injury severity was by far the best single predictor of hazard ratings (accounting for almost 78% of the hazard variance). Injury duration contributed an additional 15% of the variance. These results suggest that people consider the dimensions of injury severity and duration when evaluating the degree of hazard conveyed by warning text. Using these dimensions, warning text could be calibrated to the level of actual hazard to convey a better sense of hazardousness. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Young, S. L. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={1063–1067} }
 @article{sojourner_wogalter_1998, title={The influence of pictorials on the comprehension and recall of pharmaceutical safety and warning information}, volume={2}, number={1-2}, journal={International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics}, author={Sojourner, R. J. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={93–106} }
 @article{wogalter_magurno_rashid_klein_1998, title={The influence of time stress and location on behavioral warning compliance}, volume={29}, ISSN={["0925-7535"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0925-7535(98)00015-0}, abstractNote={Stress has been shown to affect perceptual processing and decision making in various domains. Two experiments examined the effect of stress on compliance behavior. The first experiment also examined the effect of warning location. In Experiment 1, participants were assigned randomly to one of four conditions in a 2 (stress)×2 (warning placement) between-subjects design. Participants performed a chemistry task in which they weighed and measured various chemical substances that appeared potentially hazardous, but were actually safe. In the high stress condition, participants were given a time limit to complete the task, and the experimenter stood immediately adjacent to the participant, appearing to be monitoring the participant's performance. In the low stress condition, participants were given as much time as they needed to complete the task and the experimenter stood at a distance, out of the participant's field of view. A warning to wear mask and gloves was present in one of two locations, either as a posted sign or placed within a set of task instructions. Compliance with the warning (wearing of protective equipment) was significantly higher among participants who were under low stress and exposed to the within-instructions warning. In Experiment 2, the stress manipulation was separated into two factors: time pressure (absence vs presence) and social monitoring (absence vs presence). Results showed that time pressure significantly reduced compliance compared with its absence, but social monitoring produced a small but non-significant compliance enhancement. The results point to the need to consider external factors in warning systems.}, number={2}, journal={SAFETY SCIENCE}, author={Wogalter, MS and Magurno, AB and Rashid, R and Klein, KW}, year={1998}, month={Jul}, pages={143–158} }
 @article{gibb_caldwell_garland_goldberg_hickox_payne_wogalter_1998, title={Undergraduate human factores curriculum and introductory human factors course content}, volume={42}, DOI={10.1177/154193129804200705}, abstractNote={ This panel provided a discussion format for six academic institutions to share their Human Factors (HF) curriculum and more specifically, to educate others on how they teach their introductory HF course. Each panelist addressed the following topics regarding their HF curriculum: foundation courses of the department's degree and specific HF courses offered. Then the panelists focused their discussions to their specific introductory HF course: philosophy; text book(s) used; course objectives; course syllabus flow; grading practices; and specific lesson exercises/labs. }, number={1998}, journal={Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting}, author={Gibb, R. W. and Caldwell, B. S. and Garland, D. J. and Goldberg, J. H. and Hickox, J. C. and Payne, D. G. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1998}, pages={619–623} }
 @article{wogalter_rogers_1998, title={Using psychology to make a better and safer world}, DOI={10.24839/1092-0803.eye3.1.23}, number={1998 Fall}, journal={Eye on Psi Chi}, author={Wogalter, M. S. and Rogers, W. A.}, year={1998}, pages={23–26} }
 @article{wogalter_sojourner_brelsford_1997, title={Comprehension and retention of safety pictorials}, volume={40}, ISSN={["0014-0139"]}, DOI={10.1080/001401397188017}, abstractNote={The use of pictorials to communicate safety-related information has been widely offered as a way of reaching diverse users owing to the pictorials' assumed universal information transmission potential. The present study examined comprehensibility of a set of safety pictorials, and then employed a training procedure (providing short verbal descriptions of the pictorials) to enhance comprehension and retention. Comprehension was tested for all participants prior to training, and after 1 week. Additionally, comprehension was also tested for some participants immediately following training, and 6 months after training. Also manipulated was the content of instruction (supplying either the pictorial's associated verbal label or verbal label plus a more detailed explanatory statement), and difficulty level (‘easy’ versus ‘difficult’ to understand pictorials, as determined by prior research). The results showed that training led to a significant increase in pictorial comprehension. Easy pictorials were comprehend...}, number={5}, journal={ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, MS and Sojourner, RJ and Brelsford, JW}, year={1997}, month={May}, pages={531–542} }
 @article{cox_wogalter_stokes_murff_1997, title={Do product warnings increase safe behavior? A meta-analysis}, volume={16}, ISSN={["1547-7207"]}, DOI={10.1177/074391569701600201}, abstractNote={ In a meta-analysis of warnings literature, the authors examine empirical studies containing no-warning control groups to address the question of whether the presence of on-product warnings increases the safe behavior of product users. The major findings of the study are that (1) warnings increase safe behavior and (2) this increase is found for both nonstudent and student subjects. }, number={2}, journal={JOURNAL OF PUBLIC POLICY & MARKETING}, author={Cox, EP and Wogalter, MS and Stokes, SL and Murff, EJT}, year={1997}, pages={195–204} }
 @article{wogalter_begley_scancorelli_brelsford_1997, title={Effectiveness of elevator service signs: Measurement of perceived understandability, willingness to comply and behaviour}, volume={28}, ISSN={["0003-6870"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0003-6870(96)00063-4}, abstractNote={This research examines the effectiveness of four elevator service signs. The signs' purpose is to reduce delays for longer distance riders by dissuading people from using the elevator when they are only going up one floor or down two floors. Three of the four signs were described in Chapanis' (1965, Human Factors 7, 1–17) seminal treatise entitled 'Words, words, words…': an original sign and two others that he suggested as possibly being better. The fourth was an enhanced sign incorporating human factor principles that were derived from research since Chapanis' article. The enhancements involved the use of colour, a signal word panel, icons/ pictorial, and direct, explicit wording of the required behaviour. In Experiment 1, participants rated the understandability of each sign and their willingness to obey its instructions. The pattern of the means was the same for both questions. The original sign was rated lowest and the enhanced sign was rated highest, with the two other signs receiving intermediate ratings. In Experiment 2, the signs were placed on each floor of six multi-story buildings adjacent to the elevator call buttons. People's use of the elevators during the posting of each sign and during no-sign (control) periods was measured. The experimenter rode the elevators and counted the total number of passengers using the elevators as well as the number who rode up only one floor or down one or two floors (noncompliers). The new enhanced sign increased compliance compared to the other three signs and the no-sign period. These results suggest that design principles derived from recent research can help to promote comprehension, motivation and compliance behaviour to signs.}, number={3}, journal={APPLIED ERGONOMICS}, author={Wogalter, MS and Begley, PB and Scancorelli, LF and Brelsford, JW}, year={1997}, month={Jun}, pages={181–187} }
 @article{vigilante_wogalter_1997, title={On the prioritization of safety warnings in product manuals}, volume={20}, ISSN={["0169-8141"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0169-8141(96)00061-3}, abstractNote={Most warning research has focused on how to best present individual hazards on signs and labels. However, many products have multiple hazards and to date there has been very little research on how to effectively present multi-hazard warnings. The present paper studies the sequencing of safety warnings in product manuals using warning statements from manuals of three power tools, each having multiple hazards associated with their use, maintenance, and storage. This research also examines the relationship between statement orderings and several user-belief dimensions. One group of 25 participants ordered sets of warning statements based on how they believed the warnings should be listed in the manuals. Another group of 25 participants rated each warning statement on importance, injury severity, injury likelihood, and prior awareness. The results provide a quantitative summary of preferred statement order that could be useful in assembling warning lists in manuals. Three of the four belief dimensions had substantial negative correlations with mean rank; the fourth, prior awareness, showed a weaker relationship. Empirical assessment of warning statements might be useful in prioritizing multiple warnings in product manuals to better transmit product-related hazards to users. Relevance to industry The present study demonstrates a procedure that could be useful to product and equipment manufacturers on how to prioritize lengthy lists of warning hazards. Empirical determination of the sequencing of safety messages may increase the likelihood that important information will be read and decrease the likelihood of product liability suits that allege inadequate hazard warnings.}, number={4}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ERGONOMICS}, author={Vigilante, WJ and Wogalter, MS}, year={1997}, month={Oct}, pages={277–285} }
 @article{vigilante_wogalter_1997, title={The preferred order of over-the-counter (OTC) pharmaceutical label components}, volume={31}, DOI={10.1177/009286159703100341}, abstractNote={Recently there has been increasing interest in enabling consumers to more easily acquire information from over-the-counter (OTC) nonprescription pharmaceutical labels. Standardization of label formatting is being considered by industry, government, and health-related professional organizations as a way to facilitate their usability. Standardization can assist consumers in quickly locating information relevant to the safe use of medications. The present research sought to determine whether consumers prefer a certain consistent ordering of OTC drug label component headings. If such consistency is found, the results could serve as a partial basis for a standardized format. Results showed relatively consistent orders across four drugs, three participant groups (adults attending a flea market, older adults, and undergraduates) and four scenarios in which the drugs may be used (scenarios concerning the purchase, consumption, administration to another person, and taking into consideration all possible situations the drug may be used in). A different ordering was found for emergency situations involving the drug. In general, people prefer labels that first provide what the drug is used for (indications), second provide information on associated hazards (warnings, cautions, drug interaction precautions) and use (directions), and third provide information on active ingredients. For emergency situations, however, people prefer having the associated hazards and directions listed first, followed by the indications and active ingredients. The remaining components were ordered (across all scenarios) as follows: safety seal, inactive ingredients, storage instructions, manufacturer information, and the bar code. It is suggested that implementation of label standardization should have sections located to match people’s expectations or schemas.}, number={3}, journal={Drug Information Journal}, author={Vigilante, W. J. and Wogalter, M. S.}, year={1997}, pages={973–988} }