@article{kuptsevych-timmer_antonaccio_botchkovar_smith_2019, title={Scared or Attached? Unraveling Important Links in Strain-Crime Relationships Among School Students}, volume={63}, ISSN={["1552-6933"]}, DOI={10.1177/0306624X18814342}, abstractNote={ Drawing on general strain theory of crime, the study employs the survey data from a random sample of 600 school students in Lviv, Ukraine, to examine how sanction risks and social bonds mediate and moderate the relationship between strain and adolescent delinquency. Findings from negative binomial regressions and the KHB decomposition procedure demonstrate that fear of sanctions and levels of social control mediate the relationships between strain and delinquency to a different degree, depending on the type of strain experienced. Results concerning conditioning effects are mixed, with only parental monitoring found to be a moderator of the strain–delinquency link. However, the direction of the interaction effect is unexpected. Future research needs to improve the specification of strain models and evaluate them in other sociocultural contexts. }, number={8}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Kuptsevych-Timmer, Anastasiia and Antonaccio, Olena and Botchkovar, Ekaterina V. and Smith, William R.}, year={2019}, month={Jun}, pages={1175–1201} }
 @article{tabrizian_baran_smith_meentemeyer_2018, title={Exploring perceived restoration potential of urban green enclosure through immersive virtual environments}, volume={55}, ISSN={["1522-9610"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.01.001}, abstractNote={We examine the effects of green space enclosure on perceived restorativeness and perceived safety in two urban setting, and in turn, we explore the extent to which perceived safety mediates the casual pathways between enclosure and perceived restorativeness. Photorealistic 360o panoramas taken from a plaza and a park were digitally manipulated to create 18 immersive virtual environment (IVE) stimuli that depict variations of spatial arrangement and permeability of vegetation. Using a head-mounted display, 87 participants viewed the IVEs and rated each on perceived restorativeness and perceived safety. Anova results revealed a significant interaction between enclosure indicators and setting type. Spatial arrangement positively affected perceived restorativeness in urban plaza while in park setting, spatial arrangement and permeability inversely influenced both perceived restorativeness and safety. Perception of safety mediated the causal pathways between enclosure and perceived restorativeness with more pronounced effects in park setting.}, journal={JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY}, author={Tabrizian, Payam and Baran, Perver K. and Smith, William R. and Meentemeyer, Ross K.}, year={2018}, month={Feb}, pages={99–109} }
 @article{smith_moore_cosco_wesoloski_danninger_ward_trost_ries_2016, title={Increasing Physical Activity in Childcare Outdoor Learning Environments: The Effect of Setting Adjacency Relative to Other Built Environment and Social Factors}, volume={48}, ISSN={["1552-390X"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84962706855&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1177/0013916514551048}, abstractNote={ The problem of childhood obesity can be addressed through study of how built environment characteristics can foster physical activity (PA) among preschool children. A sample of 355 behavior settings in 30 childcare center outdoor learning environments (OLEs) was studied using behavioral mapping techniques. Observers coded activity levels of preschool children across behavior settings. The level of PA observed in 6,083 behavioral displays of children aged 3 to 5 was modeled using multi-level statistical techniques. Both adjacency and centrality of play settings were found to be important factors in increasing the degree of PA, net the effect of numerous other variables. In addition, child-to-child interaction was found to foster PA (more for boys than girls) whereas a teacher’s custodial actions limit PA. Results demonstrate that design of OLE form (particularly adjacency of behavior settings) and content (use of manipulable items such as wheeled toys and balls) facilitates higher levels of PA. }, number={4}, journal={ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR}, author={Smith, William R. and Moore, Robin and Cosco, Nilda and Wesoloski, Jennifer and Danninger, Tom and Ward, Dianne S. and Trost, Stewart G. and Ries, Nicole}, year={2016}, month={May}, pages={550–578} }
 @article{antonaccio_smith_gostjev_2015, title={Anomic Strain and External Constraints: A Reassessment of Merton's Anomie/Strain Theory Using Data From Ukraine}, volume={59}, ISSN={["1552-6933"]}, DOI={10.1177/0306624x14533071}, abstractNote={ This study provides a new assessment of Merton’s anomie/strain theory and fills in several gaps in the literature. First, using the data from the sample of adolescents in an especially suitable and interesting setting, post-Soviet Ukraine, it investigates the applicability of the theory to this context and reveals that predictive powers of anomic strain may be influenced by larger sociocultural environments. Second, it evaluates the possibility of theoretical elaboration of Merton’s theory through identifying contingencies such as external constraints on behavior and finds limited support for moderating effects of perceptions of risks of sanctioning and social bonds on anomic strain–delinquency relationships. Finally, it confirms that additional clarifications of the concept of anomic strain may be promising. }, number={10}, journal={INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Antonaccio, Olena and Smith, William R. and Gostjev, Feodor A.}, year={2015}, month={Sep}, pages={1079–1103} }
 @article{bocarro_floyd_smith_edwards_schultz_baran_moore_cosco_suau_2015, title={Social and Environmental Factors Related to Boys’ and Girls’ Park-Based Physical Activity}, volume={12}, ISSN={1545-1151}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd12.140532}, DOI={10.5888/pcd12.140532}, abstractNote={Introduction Parks provide opportunities for physical activity for children. This study examined sex differences in correlates of park-based physical activity because differences may indicate that a standard environmental intervention to increase activity among children may not equally benefit boys and girls. Methods The System for Observation Play and Recreation in Communities was used to measure physical activity among 2,712 children and adolescents in 20 neighborhood parks in Durham, North Carolina, in 2007. Sedentary activity, walking, vigorous park activity, and energy expenditure were the primary outcome variables. Hierarchical logit regression models of physical activity were estimated separately for boys and girls. Results Type of activity area and presence of other active children were positively associated with boys’ and girls’ physical activity, and presence of a parent was negatively associated. A significant interaction involving number of recreation facilities in combination with formal activities was positively associated with girls’ activity. A significant interaction involving formal park activity and young boys (aged 0–5 y) was negatively associated with park-based physical activity. Conclusion Activity area and social correlates of park-based physical activity were similar for boys and girls; findings for formal park programming, age, and number of facilities were mixed. Results show that girls’ physical activity was more strongly affected by social effects (eg, presence of other active children) whereas boys’ physical activity was more strongly influenced by the availability of park facilities. These results can inform park planning and design. Additional studies are necessary to clarify sex differences in correlates of park-based physical activity.}, number={E97}, journal={Preventing Chronic Disease}, publisher={Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}, author={Bocarro, Jason N. and Floyd, Myron F. and Smith, William R. and Edwards, Michael B. and Schultz, Courtney L. and Baran, Perver and Moore, Robin A. and Cosco, Nilda and Suau, Luis J.}, year={2015}, month={Jun} }
 @article{cosco_moore_smith_2014, title={Childcare Outdoor Renovation as a Built Environment Health Promotion Strategy: Evaluating the Preventing Obesity by Design Intervention}, volume={28}, ISSN={["2168-6602"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84892504130&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.4278/ajhp.130430-quan-208}, abstractNote={Purpose. To evaluate the effectiveness of Preventing Obesity by Design (POD), a childcare center outdoor renovation intervention. }, number={3}, journal={AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH PROMOTION}, author={Cosco, Nilda G. and Moore, Robin C. and Smith, William R.}, year={2014}, pages={S27–S32} }
 @article{floyd_bocarro_smith_baran_moore_cosco_edwards_suau_fang_2011, title={Park-Based Physical Activity Among Children and Adolescents}, volume={41}, ISSN={0749-3797}, url={http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2011.04.013}, DOI={10.1016/j.amepre.2011.04.013}, abstractNote={Background Availability of parks is associated with higher levels of physical activity among children and adolescents. Few studies examine actual park use and park-based physical activity in these populations. Purpose This study examined associations among individual, park, and neighborhood environmental characteristics and children's and adolescent's park-based physical activity. Methods Data were collected in 2007 on 2712 children in 20 randomly selected parks in Durham NC. The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) provided measures of physical activity. Hierarchic regression analysis assessed associations among individual, park, and neighborhood environmental characteristics and children's park-based physical activity. Data were analyzed in 2010. Results Of the 2712 children observed, 34.2% and 13.2% were engaged in walking or vigorous physical activity. Environmental features of parks were associated with activity levels whereas neighborhood characteristics were not. Physical activity was negatively associated with gender (girls) (p=0.003); presence of a parent (p<0.0001); presence of nonparental adult (p=0.006); and an interaction involving the 0–5 years age group and style of play (p=0.017). Higher level of physical activity was associated with presence of other active children (p<0.0001); courts (e.g., basketball); and an interaction between number of recreation facilities and formal activities (p=0.004). Conclusions These social factors and design features should be considered in order to stimulate higher levels of park-based physical activity among children and adolescents. Availability of parks is associated with higher levels of physical activity among children and adolescents. Few studies examine actual park use and park-based physical activity in these populations. This study examined associations among individual, park, and neighborhood environmental characteristics and children's and adolescent's park-based physical activity. Data were collected in 2007 on 2712 children in 20 randomly selected parks in Durham NC. The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) provided measures of physical activity. Hierarchic regression analysis assessed associations among individual, park, and neighborhood environmental characteristics and children's park-based physical activity. Data were analyzed in 2010. Of the 2712 children observed, 34.2% and 13.2% were engaged in walking or vigorous physical activity. Environmental features of parks were associated with activity levels whereas neighborhood characteristics were not. Physical activity was negatively associated with gender (girls) (p=0.003); presence of a parent (p<0.0001); presence of nonparental adult (p=0.006); and an interaction involving the 0–5 years age group and style of play (p=0.017). Higher level of physical activity was associated with presence of other active children (p<0.0001); courts (e.g., basketball); and an interaction between number of recreation facilities and formal activities (p=0.004). These social factors and design features should be considered in order to stimulate higher levels of park-based physical activity among children and adolescents.}, number={3}, journal={American Journal of Preventive Medicine}, publisher={Elsevier BV}, author={Floyd, Myron F. and Bocarro, Jason N. and Smith, William R. and Baran, Perver K. and Moore, Robin C. and Cosco, Nilda G. and Edwards, Michael B. and Suau, Luis J. and Fang, Kunsheng}, year={2011}, month={Sep}, pages={258–265} }
 @article{bocarro_floyd_moore_baran_danninger_smith_cosco_2009, title={Adaptation of the System for Observing Physical Activity and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) to Assess Age Groupings of Children}, volume={6}, ISSN={["1543-5474"]}, url={http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-73349133665&partnerID=MN8TOARS}, DOI={10.1123/jpah.6.6.699}, abstractNote={Background:To better measure physical activity (PA) in outdoor environments, McKenzie and colleagues developed the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC). However, previous SOPARC research has focused on adults, seniors, teens and children. One avenue for extending this work is to expand the child age group code to capture important nuances that can influence children's PA and their environments. This study reports on the reliability of a measure designed to account for PA in parks among children in different childhood age groups.}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & HEALTH}, publisher={Human Kinetics}, author={Bocarro, Jason N. and Floyd, Myron and Moore, Robin and Baran, Perver and Danninger, Tom and Smith, William and Cosco, Nilda}, year={2009}, month={Nov}, pages={699–707} }
 @article{lisal_cosoli_smith_jain_gubbins_2008, title={Molecular-level simulations of chemical reaction equilibrium for nitric oxide dimerization reaction in disordered nanoporous carbons}, volume={272}, ISSN={["0378-3812"]}, DOI={10.1016/j.fluid.2008.07.015}, abstractNote={We report a molecular-level simulation study of the effects of confinement on chemical reaction equilibrium for the NO dimerization reaction, 2NO ⇌ (NO)2, in disordered nanoporous carbons. We use the Reaction Ensemble Monte Carlo (RxMC) method [W.R. Smith, B. Tříska, J. Chem. Phys. 100 (1994) 3019–3027; J.K. Johnson, A.Z. Panagiotopoulos, K.E. Gubbins, Mol. Phys. 81 (1994) 717–733] to investigate the effects of temperature and bulk pressure on the reaction conversion in three models of disordered nanoporous carbons obtained from sucrose in equilibrium with a vapor reservoir. Atomistic models of the carbons used [S.K. Jain, R.J.-M. Pellenq, J.P. Pikunic, K.E. Gubbins, Langmuir 22 (2006) 9942–9948] were constructed using the Hybrid Reverse Monte Carlo method, differing by the processing conditions used in the preparation of the corresponding real material. In addition to the RxMC simulations, we test conventional macroscopic adsorption models, such as the Langmuir–Freundlich, multisite Langmuir, vacancy solution and ideal adsorption solution models, in connection with the ideal-gas model for the vapor reservoir to model the reaction equilibrium. Pure fluid adsorption isotherms needed as input to the macroscopic models for mixture adsorption are generated using the Gibbs Ensemble Monte Carlo or Grand Canonical Monte Carlo simulations. We analyze the effects of the confinement, temperature and bulk pressure on the NO dimerization reaction equilibrium in terms of the reactive adsorption isotherms. The RxMC simulations and thermodynamic modeling show that the sucrose-based carbons substantially increase the conversion of NO to (NO)2 with respect to the vapor reservoir, where the conversion is less than a few percent.}, number={1-2}, journal={FLUID PHASE EQUILIBRIA}, author={Lisal, Martin and Cosoli, Paolo and Smith, William R. and Jain, Surendra K. and Gubbins, Keith E.}, year={2008}, month={Oct}, pages={18–31} }
 @article{turner_brennan_lisal_smith_johnson_gubbins_2008, title={Simulation of chemical reaction equilibria by the reaction ensemble Monte Carlo method: a review}, volume={34}, ISSN={["1029-0435"]}, DOI={10.1080/08927020801986564}, abstractNote={Understanding and predicting the equilibrium behaviour of chemically reacting systems in highly non-ideal environments is critical to many fields of science and technology, including solvation, nanoporous materials, catalyst design, combustion and propulsion science, shock physics and many more. A method with recent success in predicting the equilibrium behaviour of reactions under non-ideal conditions is the reaction ensemble Monte Carlo method (RxMC). RxMC has been applied to reactions confined in porous solids or near solid surfaces, reactions at high temperature and/or high pressure, reactions in solution and at phase interfaces. The only required information is a description of the intermolecular forces among the system molecules and standard free-energy data for the reacting components. Extensions of the original method include its combination with algorithms for systems involving phase equilibria, constant-enthalpy and constant-internal energy adiabatic conditions, a method to include reaction kinetics, a method to study the dynamics of reacting systems, and a mesoscale method to simulate long-chain molecule phase separation. This manuscript surveys the various applications and adaptations of the RxMC method to date. Additionally, the relationship between the RxMC method and other techniques that simulate chemical reaction behaviour is given, along with insight into some technical nuances not found in the pioneering papers.}, number={2}, journal={MOLECULAR SIMULATION}, author={Turner, C. Heath and Brennan, John K. and Lisal, Martin and Smith, William R. and Johnson, J. Karl and Gubbins, Keith E.}, year={2008}, pages={119–146} }
 @article{warren_tomaskovic-devey_smith_zingraff_mason_2006, title={Driving while black: Bias processes and racial disparity in police stops}, volume={44}, ISSN={["1745-9125"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00061.x}, abstractNote={We estimate the degree of racial disparity in police vehicular stops separately for local and state police in North Carolina in the year 2000. We introduce four mechanisms that might produce racial disparities in police stops—racial profiling, race sensitive police deployment, cognitive bias and stereotyping, and prejudice. We then model the relative odds of police vehicle stops as a function of race, driving behavior, and other demographic statuses separately by police organization type, with controls for omitted variable bias at both the driver and spatial level. We find only weak evidence of racial disparity in stops by officers of the state highway patrol but stronger evidence in those made by local police officers.}, number={3}, journal={CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Warren, Patricia and Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald and Smith, William and Zingraff, Matthew and Mason, Marcinda}, year={2006}, month={Aug}, pages={709–738} }
 @misc{rice_smith_2002, title={Socioecological models of automotive theft: Integrating routine activity and social disorganization approaches}, volume={39}, ISSN={["1552-731X"]}, DOI={10.1177/002242780203900303}, abstractNote={This study explores causes of variation in auto theft rates using spatial data with face blocks as a unit of analysis. An integration of routine activity theory and social disorganization theory is proposed, premised on an empirical basis of interaction effects and a pattern of automobile theft diffusion. The results show that the integration of social disorganization theory and routine activity theory significantly increases the predictive power of the analyses and reveals several new socioecological implications for how and why auto theft occurs.}, number={3}, journal={JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY}, author={Rice, KJ and Smith, WR}, year={2002}, month={Aug}, pages={304–336} }
 @article{smith_2001, title={Social science, social policy, and the law}, volume={30}, ISSN={["0094-3061"]}, DOI={10.2307/3089284}, number={3}, journal={CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY-A JOURNAL OF REVIEWS}, author={Smith, WR}, year={2001}, month={May}, pages={296–298} }
 @article{silver_smith_banks_2000, title={Constructing actuarial devices for predicting recidivism - A comparison of methods}, volume={27}, ISSN={["0093-8548"]}, DOI={10.1177/0093854800027006004}, abstractNote={ A recent contribution to the prediction literature by Steadman et al. features a novel “iterative classification” procedure for constructing risk screening devices. In this article, the authors apply the iterative classification procedure to a large recidivism data set, across a range of recidivism outcomes and cross-validation conditions. The purpose of this study is to assess the generalizability of the iterative classification procedure and to draw comparisons with more traditional methods of device construction. Results show the iterative classification procedure to outperform other standard device construction procedures in terms of the percentage of cases classified as high or low risk but not to outperform more traditional device construction procedures on a variety of other performance measures. Implications for future research on the construction and evaluation of risk screening devices are discussed. }, number={6}, journal={CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR}, author={Silver, E and Smith, WR and Banks, S}, year={2000}, month={Dec}, pages={733–764} }
 @article{smith_frazee_davison_2000, title={Furthering the integration of routine activity and social disorganization theories: Small units of analysis and the study of street robbery as a diffusion process}, volume={38}, ISSN={["0011-1384"]}, DOI={10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00897.x}, abstractNote={Attempts to integrate the two predominant spatial theories of crime, social disorganization and routine activity theories, may benefit from examining empirical relationships at units of analysis smaller than the relatively large units characteristic of most ecological research (cities, SMSAs, census tracts, multiple city blocks). Small units of analysis, specifically, face blocks (both sides of a city block between two intersections) are analyzed in a study of street robbery within a medium‐size southeastern U.S. city. Models of street robbery and street‐robbery “potential” suggest a crime diffusion process. Several interaction effects between variables of social disorganization and routine activity theory are found, which may form the basis in future research for successful theoretical integration.}, number={2}, journal={CRIMINOLOGY}, author={Smith, WR and Frazee, SG and Davison, EL}, year={2000}, month={May}, pages={489–523} }
 @article{smith_smith_1998, title={The consequences of error: Recidivism prediction and civil-libertarian ratios}, volume={26}, ISSN={["0047-2352"]}, DOI={10.1016/S0047-2352(98)00026-9}, abstractNote={The utility of recidivistic prediction is limited by the false positive problem: predictions of failure (recidivism) that do not occur. False negatives (predicted successes but observed failures) are also worrisome, and together both types of error can be formally evaluated by what Blumstein, Farrington, and Moitra call the civil-libertarian ratio: the ratio of the subjective cost of a false positive to a false negative. Choice of a recidivistic criterion and selection of a proportion of offenders for criminal justice intervention have implications for the evaluation of the disutility or subjective cost associated with various civil-libertarian ratios. Logistic regression models of four recidivistic criteria are evaluated to demonstrate how base rate (observed failure rate) and selection ratio (proportion selected to fail) affect the disutility associated with a range of civil-libertarian ratios. Use of civil-libertarian ratios by criminal justice policy makers is demonstrated. Predictive utility is relatively difficult to achieve for rare recidivistic events if the decisions involve severe deprivation of liberty (incarceration decisions). Predictive utility is easier to achieve for more common forms of recidivism or in decision contexts where there is less concern for false positives, such as for “intermediate sanctions.”}, number={6}, journal={JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE}, author={Smith, WR and Smith, DR}, year={1998}, pages={481–502} }
 @article{smith_torstensson_1997, title={Fear of crime: Gender differences in risk perception and neutralizing fear of crime}, volume={37}, DOI={10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014201}, abstractNote={Why the least victimized by violence (e.g., women and elderly) are most fearful is a central paradox in the fear of crime literature. Four attempts to resolve the paradox are discussed: hidden victimization of women; greater tendencies of women to recall early life-course experiences, and to generalize fear from one context to another and from one type of victimization to another; vulnerability ofwomen; and male discounting offear. Empirical evidence from a Stockholm survey is used to argue that the hidden victimization strategem does not seem likely to succeed in explaining fear levels. Tendencies for women to generalize differently from men across time, space or type of victimization experience are not found or weak. Results are consistent with the vulnerability hypothesis, specifically the greater 'ecological vulnerability' of women (Sparks 1982), but there is also evidence of male 'discounting' of risk and fear. Further research is needed to assess the extent to which female vulnerability is more important than male discounting in accounting for risk perceptions and fear of crime.}, number={4}, journal={British Journal of Criminology}, author={Smith, W. R. and Torstensson, M.}, year={1997}, pages={608–634} }